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The prevalence of loneliness across 113 countries: systematic review and meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Objectives: To identify data availability, gaps, and patterns for population level prevalence of loneliness globally, to summarise prevalence estimates within World Health Organization regions when feasible through meta-analysis, and to examine temporal trends of loneliness in countries where data exist. Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Data sources: Embase, Medline, PsycINFO, and Scopus for peer reviewed literature, and Google Scholar and Open Grey for grey literature, supplemented by backward reference searching (to 1 September 2021) Eligibility criteria for selecting studies: Observational studies based on nationally representative samples (n≥292), validated instruments, and prevalence data for 2000-19. Two researchers independently extracted data and assessed the risk of bias using the Joanna Briggs Institute checklist. Random effects meta-analysis was conducted in the subset of studies with relatively homogeneous research methods by measurement instrument, age group, and WHO region. Results: Prevalence data were available for 113 countries or territories, according to official WHO nomenclature for regions, from 57 studies. Data were available for adolescents (12-17 years) in 77 countries or territories, young adults (18-29 years) in 30 countries, middle aged adults (30-59 years) in 32 countries, and older adults (≥60 years) in 40 countries. Data for all age groups except adolescents were lacking outside of Europe. Overall, 212 estimates for 106 countries from 24 studies were included in meta-analyses. The pooled prevalence of loneliness for adolescents ranged from 9.2% (95% confidence interval 6.8% to 12.4%) in South-East Asia to 14.4% (12.2% to 17.1%) in the Eastern Mediterranean region. For adults, meta-analysis was conducted for the European region only, and a consistent geographical pattern was shown for all adult age groups. The lowest prevalence of loneliness was consistently observed in northern European countries (2.9%, 1.8% to 4.5% for young adults; 2.7%, 2.4% to 3.0% for middle aged adults; and 5.2%, 4.2% to 6.5% for older adults) and the highest in eastern European countries (7.5%, 5.9% to 9.4% for young adults; 9.6%, 7.7% to 12.0% for middle aged adults; and 21.3%, 18.7% to 24.2% for older adults). Conclusion: Problematic levels of loneliness are experienced by a substantial proportion of the population in many countries. The substantial difference in data coverage between high income countries (particularly Europe) and low and middle income countries raised an important equity issue. Evidence on the temporal trends of loneliness is insufficient. The findings of this meta-analysis are limited by data scarcity and methodological heterogeneity. Loneliness should be incorporated into general health surveillance with broader geographical and age coverage, using standardised and validated measurement tools. Systematic review registration: PROSPERO CRD42019131448.
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“Data based on nationally representative samples within World Health Organization regions pre-COVID-19 suggest that only 9.2% to 14.4% of adolescents experienced loneliness.16”
From A Longitudinal Study of Loneliness Before the End of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Trajectories, Predictors, and Impact on Chinese Adolescent Mental Health (2024) · cites this paper as [16]
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Sense-Making of Loneliness and Exclusion From Social Relations Among Older Adults in Sweden
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“…job dissatisfaction (2), discrimination, emotionally polarized political discourse (3), hate crimes (4), social/digital media violence (5, 6), civil unrest (7), unhealthy physical environments (1), loneliness (8), food insecurity, and unhealthy foods all contribute to decreases in wellbeing (9).”
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“A large focus has been placed on examining loneliness in older adults and adolescents (12 – 17 years), however there is a dearth of literature on loneliness in young and middle-aged adults (Surkalim et al., 2022).”
National policy responses to address loneliness: A global scoping review of 194 WHO member states
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“Methodology continues to pose challenges in loneliness research (e.g., Maes et el., 2022; Surkalim et al., 2022).”
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Experiences of Loneliness Among Gay Men: A Systematic Review and Meta-Synthesis
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“For context, the prevalence of loneliness in the general population in Europe ranges from 2.9% to 9.6% depending on the region and age group, highlighting the significantly higher vulnerability of gay men to loneliness (Surkalim et al., 2022).”
InfluentialInterprofessional Collaborations on Interventions for People With Loneliness: A Scoping Review
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“Systematic review showed that levels of loneliness are prevalent across the whole lifespan around the world, ranging from 9.2% to 24.2%, including older adults (Surkalim et al. 2022).”
InfluentialBahadori, F., Asadollahi, A., Ghajari, O., & Yarelahi, M. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-02913-8 · Cited by 6
“Therefore, although loneliness differs from social isolation (a lack of social contacts) and being alone (physical separation), it relates to them [2].”
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“Surkalim et al. 12 conducted a meta-analysis of loneliness prevalence rates across 113 countries, drawing from 57 studies published between 2000 and 2019.”
Cunningham, K. B., Wells, M., & Kroll, T. (2025) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2025.2528822 · Cited by 8
“…(Cunningham et al., 2021; Hawkley, 2022; Hunter, 2012; Office of the Surgeon General, 2023; The Lancet, 2020) due to its reported prevalence (Surkalim et al., 2022) – described as an epidemic in modern society (Killeen, 1998, p. 762) – and associations with low wellbeing, poor mental and…”
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“(Surkalim et al., 2022), although differences in cultural norms and social contexts that shape the reporting and interpretation of loneliness should be considered when making cross-national comparisons.”
Lee, C., Park, Y., & Cho, B. (2023) · Research in Gerontological Nursing · doi:10.3928/19404921-20230104-03 · Cited by 6
Gallardo-Peralta, L. P., Gálvez-Nieto, J. L., Fernández-Dávila, P. A., & Veloso-Besio, C. B. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20032138 · Cited by 8
“Loneliness is defined as a public health problem [1–3] given its high prevalence and relationship to quality of life, meaning that it requires monitoring [2].”
BackgroundLederman, Z. (2023) · British Medical Bulletin · doi:10.1093/bmb/ldad003 · Cited by 8
Domènech‐Abella, J., Gabarrell‐Pascuet, A., Mundó, J., Haro, J. M., & Varga, T. V. (2023) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2023.11.001 · Cited by 6
Emotional competencies and psychological distress: Is loneliness a mediating factor?
Ghiggia, A., Castelli, L., Adenzato, M., & Tella, M. D. (2023) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12987 · Cited by 8
Tierney, S., Rowe, R., Connally, E. L., Roberts, N. W., Mahtani, K. R., & Gorenberg, J. (2024) · Lifestyle Medicine · doi:10.1002/lim2.98 · Cited by 8
Kurotani, K., Katane, R., Nagashima, M., Saegusa, M., Yokode, N., Watanabe, N., & Ohkawara, K. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16111661 · Cited by 7
“In addition, a meta-analysis across 113 countries indicated that problematic levels of loneliness are experienced by a substantial proportion of the population in many countries [10].”
BackgroundPlaying Kioku Reduces Loneliness in Older Adults: A Pilot Study
Bodner, E., Segev, A., Chernitsky, R., & Barak, Y. (2024) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2023.0130 · Cited by 8
Disruption and Improvisation: Experiences of Loneliness for People With Chronic Illness
Cheung, M. M. Y., Lewis, S. C., Raja, R., Willis, K. F., Dubbin, L. A., Rogers, A. E., Moensted, M. L., & Smith, L. D. (2024) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/10497323241265329 · Cited by 6
“Loneliness is a pressing and rapidly growing social challenge (Surkalim et al., 2022), de fi ned as the negative emotional response to a discrepancy between a person ’ s desired and actual level of social relationships (Peplau & Perlman, 1982).”
Nascimento, M. D. M., Marques, A., Gouveia, É. R., Green, G., Lampraki, C., & Ihle, A. (2024) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-024-10091-w · Cited by 9
“In turn, these results were confirmed in a meta-analysis that includes 113 countries, highlighting the older population of Eastern European countries with a higher prevalence of loneliness [4].”
Fritze, S., Brandt, G. A., Volkmer, S., Daub, J., Altinok, D. C. A., Kubera, K. M., Berhe, O., Lin, Y., Tost, H., Meyer‐Lindenberg, A., et al. (2025) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2025.01.001 · Cited by 6
Reed, N. P., & Hagen, J. (2025) · International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1080/17482631.2025.2476215 · Cited by 6
“Unfortunately, not all individuals experience adequate social connections, and loneliness is a major public health issue (Leigh-Hunt et al., 2017; Surkalim et al., 2022).”
Predictors of loneliness onset and maintenance in European older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic
Lundmark, V. P., Josefsson, M., & Rieckmann, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1172552 · Cited by 6
Influence of socio-demographic factors on the development of marketing communications
Nesterenko, V. (2023) · Scientific Bulletin of Mukachevo State University Series “Economics” · doi:10.52566/msu-econ2.2023.09 · Cited by 6
Loneliness status transitions and risk of cardiovascular disease among middle-aged and older adults
Lu, Y., Wang, R., Norman, J., & Yu, P. (2023) · Nutrition Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2023.10.024 · Cited by 6
Mečkovský, F., Fürstová, J., Košárková, A., Meier, Z., Tavel, P., & Maliňáková, K. (2023) · International Journal of Public Health · doi:10.3389/ijph.2023.1606537 · Cited by 7
“In terms of age, the research to date is not entirely consistent; for example, a meta-analysis by [9] found the highest rates of loneliness in older age groups, whereas a meta-synthesis by [10] found the highest loneliness in the young and older people.”
Mahon, D. (2023) · Mental Health and Social Inclusion · doi:10.1108/mhsi-11-2023-0129 · Cited by 7
Zhang, Y., Liu, M., Ye, Z., Yang, S., Zhou, C., He, P., Zhang, Y., Gan, X., & Qin, X. (2024) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2023.111587 · Cited by 6
Procrastination, depressive symptomatology, and loneliness in later life
Monaghan, C., Ávila-Palència, I., Han, S. D., & Power, J. M. (2024) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2024.2345781 · Cited by 7
“…is commonly associated with these declines and has been linked to higher prevalence rates among older adults (ekwall et al., 2005; lim, 2018; Surkalim et al., 2022). loneliness is described as a perceived discrepancy between one’s actual and desired levels of social relationships (Peplau &…”
Coon, J. T., Campbell, F., Sutton, A., Whear, R., Rogers, M., Barlow, J., Robinson-Carter, E., Sharpe, R. A., Cohen, S., & Wolstenholme, L. (2022) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.1235 · Cited by 6
The Global Issues of Loneliness and Social Connectedness
Long, E. M. (2024) · Journal of the American Medical Directors Association · doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2024.105126 · Cited by 6
Zhao, Y., Wang, Z., Feng, N., Griffiths, M. D., & Cui, L. (2025) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-025-10512-3 · Cited by 6
“Individuals can experience the feeling of loneliness throughout the lifespan, but adolescents and older adults are more vulnerable (Surkalim et al., 2022 ).”
Domènech‐Abella, J., Muntaner, C., Rodeiro-Boliart, J., Gabarrell‐Pascuet, A., Haro, J. M., Ayuso‐Mateos, J. L., Miret, M., & Olaya, B. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.09.071 · Cited by 5
Zheng, Y., Rollano, C., Bagnall, C. L., Bond, C., Jia, S., & Qualter, P. (2024) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2024.101380 · Cited by 12
Predicting the Risk of Loneliness in Children and Adolescents: A Machine Learning Study
Zhang, J., Feng, X., Wang, W., Liu, S., Zhang, Q., Wu, D., & Liu, Q. (2024) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs14100947 · Cited by 6
“A recent meta-analysis of loneliness in 113 countries found that the prevalence of loneliness among adolescents (12–17 years) ranged from 9.2% to 14.4% [5].”
BackgroundInfluentialLoneliness in acquired brain injury; a qualitative exploration of lived experience
Duffy, O., Pedlow, K., Pogue, J. A., Jordan, J., Dunlop, L., Agnew, R., Taylor, I., & Rauch, R. (2025) · Brain Injury · doi:10.1080/02699052.2025.2472190 · Cited by 5
“Loneliness is an international issue (19) and is recognized by many as a key health priority (20,21).”
Skoko, A., Seewer, N., Mund, M., & Krieger, T. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0321931 · Cited by 5
“Still, pre-pandemic data from 113 countries showed loneliness prevalence ranging from 5.3% to 12.7% across age groups [7], emphasizing the need for continued research and intervention.”
InfluentialBraig, S., Denkinger, M. D., Dallmeier, D., Klenk, J., Rothenbacher, D., & for the ActiFE Study Group (2025) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-025-03041-4 · Cited by 6
“Loneliness is prevalent in industrialized countries with the highest burden among young and older adults [1], but results are mixed across age groups [2] and geographic regions [3].”
Bristle, J., Wagner, M., Hannemann, T., & Cohn‐Schwartz, E. (2025) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s10389-025-02491-4 · Cited by 5
Transitions of loneliness and lonely life expectancy: A longitudinal study across 24 countries.
Zhu, J.-J., Huang, Z.-Y., Yang, S.-L., Jiang, J.-J., You, H., & Gao, J.-L. (2025) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.inpsyc.2025.100134 · Cited by 5
Luan, T., Wang, Y., Li, B., Qin, R., Li, Z., Lei, X., & Guo, H. (2025) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2025.106053 · Cited by 8
Pitkälä, K. H., Rautiainen, L. J., Aalto, U. L., Kolster, A., Laakkonen, M., Lehtonen, R., Páez, F. D. A., Masó-Aguado, M., Bártová, A., Briones‐Buixassa, L., et al. (2026) · Educational Gerontology · doi:10.1080/03601277.2025.2608731 · Cited by 5
Chamberlain, S. A., Griffith, L. E., Savage, R., Batara, J., Yan, W., & Gruneir, A. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0341572 · Cited by 6
Metadata
- Authors
- Surkalim, D. L., Luo, M., Eres, R., Gebel, K., van Buskirk, J., Bauman, A., & Ding, D.
- Affiliations
- The University of Sydney (AU)
- Royal Children's Hospital (AU)
- University of Technology Sydney (AU)
- Sydney School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
- Corresponding author
- Ding, Ding
- ORCID
- Venue
- BMJ
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2022-02-09
- Volume
- 376
- Pages
- e067068
- ISSN
- 1756-1833 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8826180
- OpenAlex
- W4211106541
- Cited by
- 821
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 220 · 2025: 236 · 2024: 183 · 2023: 138 · 2022: 44
- FWCI
- 20.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- BMJ (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RMIT Research Repository (RMIT University Library) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Keywords
- loneliness, prevalence of loneliness, cross-national comparison, adolescents, young adults, middle-aged adults, older adults, temporal trends, WHO regions, loneliness and isolation
- MeSH terms
- Demography, Humans, Loneliness, Global Health, Prevalence
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