Cited by 638Psychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionPsychometric Methodologies and TestingHealth, psychology, and well-being

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 135 of the 141 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 35 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time

Open access

Linton, Myles-Jay, Dieppe, Paul, Medina-Lara, Antonieta·2016·BMJ Open

DOI 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010641PMC PMC4947747

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Abstract

Objective: Investigators within many disciplines are using measures of well-being, but it is not always clear what they are measuring, or which instruments may best meet their objectives. The aims of this review were to: systematically identify well-being instruments, explore the variety of well-being dimensions within instruments and describe how the production of instruments has developed over time. Design: Systematic searches, thematic analysis and narrative synthesis were undertaken. Data sources: MEDLINE, EMBASE, EconLit, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library and CINAHL from 1993 to 2014 complemented by web searches and expert consultations through 2015. Eligibility criteria: Instruments were selected for review if they were designed for adults (≥18 years old), generic (ie, non-disease or context specific) and available in an English version. Results: A total of 99 measures of well-being were included, and 196 dimensions of well-being were identified within them. Dimensions clustered around 6 key thematic domains: mental well-being, social well-being, physical well-being, spiritual well-being, activities and functioning, and personal circumstances. Authors were rarely explicit about how existing theories had influenced the design of their tools; however, the 2 most referenced theories were Diener's model of subjective well-being and the WHO definition of health. The period between 1990 and 1999 produced the greatest number of newly developed well-being instruments (n=27). An illustration of the dimensions identified and the instruments that measure them is provided within a thematic framework of well-being. Conclusions: This review provides researchers with an organised toolkit of instruments, dimensions and an accompanying glossary. The striking variability between instruments supports the need to pay close attention to what is being assessed under the umbrella of ‘well-being’ measurement.

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TL;DR

This systematic review identified 99 generic self-report well-being measures for adults and catalogued 196 dimensions, clustering into six key thematic domains plus a global well-being set. It found substantial variability in definitions, dimensions and instrument design, with Diener’s subjective well-being model and the WHO definition of health as the most referenced theories.

Key findings

99 measures were included and 196 dimensions of well-being were identified; dimensions clustered around 6 key thematic domains: mental well-being, social well-being, physical well-being, spiritual well-being, activities and functioning, and personal circumstances, with a seventh set measuring global well-being overall.
67/99 instruments were multidimensional, containing on average 5 dimensions (range 1–15); 69% of dimensions (136/196) appeared in only one instrument. Recurring dimensions included psychological well-being overall (n=13), physical well-being overall (n=12), social well-being overall (n=9), depression (n=9), positive affect (n=8) and relationships (n=8).
The period 1990–1999 produced the greatest number of newly developed well-being instruments (n=27); since 2010, 14 new tools and 8 revisions had been published. The oldest instruments were from 1961 and the newest from 2015.
The two most referenced theories were Diener’s model of subjective well-being and the WHO definition of health; however, authors were rarely explicit about how existing theories influenced their tool design. Compared with the largest review of the topic to date, this review contained an additional 40 instruments.

Methods

Systematic searches were conducted in MEDLINE, EMBASE, EconLit, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library and CINAHL from 1993 to 2014, complemented by web searches and expert consultations through 2015; 2520 unique records were screened, 129 instruments assessed for eligibility, 30 excluded, and 99 included.
Instruments were included if designed for adults (≥18 years), generic (non-disease or context-specific), available in English, and intended to assess well-being including concepts such as quality of life, happiness and wellness; disease-specific, context-specific, and child/adolescent instruments were excluded.
Data extraction was undertaken by two reviewers, and dimensions were organised using thematic analysis in NVivo V.8, with discrepancies resolved through discussion with a third reviewer; results were synthesised narratively.

Limitations

Stated in the paper: the review was limited to adult generic measures due to practical constraints, so condition-specific instruments and tools for children and adolescents were not included.
Stated in the paper: the extensive literature, inconsistent phrasing and disorganisation make a definitive list of instruments unlikely; the review does not recommend any one specific instrument, and further research is needed on psychometric properties, especially content and construct validity.
Evident from the text: the review does not assess the psychometric quality, validity or reliability of the included instruments; definitions of well-being and dimensions were often incomplete or unclear, and dimensions may overlap or be used inconsistently.

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Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010641

Cites

135 of 135 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

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Claims the paper makes

0 of 35 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Authors were rarely explicit about how existing theories had influenced the design of their tools”
- Also stated in: § Instrument characteristics · plain
  “In many cases, however, authors did not specify the theories that had influenced the design of their instrument.”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Abstract > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Dimensions clustered around 6 key thematic domains: mental well-being, social well-being, physical well-being, spiritual well-being, activities and functioning, and personal circumstances.”
- Also stated in: § Dimensions linked to themes · plain
  “The dimensions clustered around six key themes: ‘mental well-being’, ‘social well-being’, ‘physical well-being’, ‘spiritual well-being’, ‘personal circumstances’ and ‘activities and functioning’.”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Abstract > Results
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“the 2 most referenced theories were Diener's model of subjective well-being and the WHO definition of health.”
- Also stated in: § Instrument characteristics · plain
  “The two theoretical influences most commonly reported in the literature were Diener's127 model of SWB and the WHO definition of health”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Abstract > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [127] source
- Not checked yetcites [128] World Health Organization. Constitution of the World Health Organization, as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19–22 June 1946; signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States (Official Records of the World Health Organization, no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. 1948. Constitution of the World Health Organization. 2006. www.who.int/governance/eb/who_constitution_en.pdf
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“196 dimensions of well-being were identified within them.”
- Also stated in: § Dimensions of well-being · plain
  “Across the 99 instruments identified, 196 different dimensions were found.”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Abstract > Results
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A total of 99 measures of well-being were included”
- Also stated in: § Identification of instruments · plain
  “Table 1 contains details on each of the 99 instruments included in the final review.”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Abstract > Results
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The period between 1990 and 1999 produced the greatest number of newly developed well-being instruments (n=27).”
- Also stated in: § Instrument characteristics · plain
  “The 1990s provided the biggest period for the development of new tools (n=27).”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Abstract > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 27
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes

Show all 30 claims

Probably not a substantial claim. 44
It may state two separate claims as one. 26

In the paper
“and psychological well-being was used as an alternative phrasing for mental health.74”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Results > Definitions of well-being
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [74] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“mental well-being and mental health were acknowledged as being used interchangeably throughout the literature,133”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Results > Definitions of well-being
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [133] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The subjective component of well-being was consistently divided into an ‘affective’ component concerned with emotions and a ‘cognitive’ component concerned with how people evaluate their own lives.50 109”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Results > Definitions of well-being
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [50] Şimşek, 2011, An intentional model of emotional well-being: the development and initial validation of a measure of subjective well-being, J Happiness Stud source
- Not checked yetcites [109] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Authors frequently quoted the WHO definition of health as ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of a disease’.93 104”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Results > Definitions of well-being
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [93] Vaingankar, 2011, The positive mental health instrument: development and validation of a culturally relevant scale in a multi-ethnic Asian population, Health Qual Life Outcomes source
- Not checked yetcites [104] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Greater specificity was provided by definitions that partitioned well-being into a subjective domain, and a separate objective domain.42”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Results > Definitions of well-being
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [42] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“SWB was noted as a synonym of happiness,116”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Results > Definitions of well-being
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [116] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Broadly speaking, however, well-being was defined as a multidimensional construct.130”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Results > Definitions of well-being
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [130] source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although the biological, psychological, social, economic and spiritual dimensions of well-being have been acknowledged in the literature,22–24 the way in which they are operationalised as dimensions across measures of well-being is largely unstated.”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [22] Bensley, 1991, Defining spiritual health: a review of the literature, J Health Educ source
- Not checked yetcites [23] source
- Not checked yetcites [24] source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Despite efforts by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to formalise the measurement of well-being,25 not enough exhaustive advice is provided on how researchers can effectively use the many self-report instruments that have already been developed within existing literature.”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [25] OECD. How's life? 2013. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2013.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Regardless, new tools continue to be developed in order to reflect differing perspectives,14 changing clinical needs15 and input from newly interested disciplines, such as public health.16”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] Diener, 2010, New well-being measures: short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings, Soc Indicators Res source
- Not checked yetcites [15] Joseph, 2014, Positive functioning inventory: initial validation of a 12-item self-report measure of well-being, Psychol Wellbeing
- Not checked yetcites [16] Bann, 2012, Development and psychometric evaluation of the public health surveillance well-being scale, Qual Life Res source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Previous reviews have highlighted some of the available tools.29–31 However, not all have used systematic methods for identifying measures.”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] Schiaffino, 2003, Other measures of psychological well-being: the Affect Balance Scale (ABS), General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12), Life Satisfaction Index-A (LSI-A), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), and State-Trait Anxiety Index (STAI), Arthritis Care Res source
- Not checked yetcites [30] source
- Not checked yetcites [31] source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Despite the continued development of new instruments, no universally accepted measure has emerged,13 in part because there are no agreed conceptual criteria concerning what an instrument should contain.”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [13] source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Instruments are scattered across disciplines, inconsistently labelled, and the differences between them are unclear.18”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] Gasper, 2010, Understanding the diversity of conceptions of well-being and quality of life, J Socio Econ source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Theories of well-being are problematic due to their vast numbers; for example, some investigators approach the topic from the perspective of basic human needs,10 while others examine the capabilities of individuals11 and multiple theories have been integrated into new hybrid approaches.12”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] source
- Not checked yetcites [11] Sen A . Commodities and capabilities. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1985.
- Not checked yetcites [12] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The spike in the number of instruments developed in the past 20 years in particular may have been influenced by the growing academic recognition that self-reported data produced by measures of well-being have demonstrable empirical and economic value.134”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [134] source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“‘SWB’ may differ from health in that it inherently targets how individuals think and feel about the quality of their own lives.127”
§ Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [127] source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

59 of 59

The paper relies on this without support.
Definitions of well-being often differ by discipline and are frequently confused with related topics such as health-related quality of life, happiness and wellness.
“For example, definitions of well-being often differ by discipline, and are frequently confused with related topics such as health-related quality of life, happiness and wellness.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Relatively little attention has been paid to how varying perspectives have influenced the development and range of well-being measurement instruments.
“However, relatively little attention has been paid to how these varying perspectives have influenced the development and range of well-being measurement instruments in existence.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Ambiguity is caused by variability in the dimensions of well-being used between instruments.
“Ambiguity is also caused by variability in the dimensions of well-being used between instruments.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There is no agency or group that oversees and coordinates the development and organisation of well-being measures.
“As with most domains of measurement, there is no agency or group that oversees and coordinates the development and organisation of well-being measures.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many previous reviews focused on psychometric properties such as validity and reliability, but the tools themselves are typically listed without clear analysis of how their content differs.
“Many of the reviews to date have focused on psychometric properties such as validity and reliability; however, the tools themselves are typically listed without clear analysis of how their content differs.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The evolution of instruments over time and their theoretical underpinnings have not been described.
“Further, the evolution of instruments over time and their theoretical underpinnings have not been described.”
The paper relies on this without support.
What is a priority for measuring well-being in one discipline may not be a priority in another context.
“Further, what is a priority for measuring well-being in one discipline, such as health economics, may not be a priority in another context, such as clinical psychology.”

7 of 7

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Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

Warwick-Edinburgh scale is given the wrong tool number
Minor
The text identifies the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale as tool 96, but table 1 lists it as tool 95; tool 96 is the Well-Being Picture Scale.

1 of 1

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Authors: Linton, M.-J., Dieppe, P., & Medina-Lara, A.
Affiliations: University of Exeter (GB)
Health Economics Group, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
Corresponding author: Linton, Myles-Jay
ORCID: Linton, Myles-Jay
Medina-Lara, Antonieta
Venue: BMJ Open
Publisher: BMJ
Published: 2016-07
Volume: 6
Issue: 7
Pages: e010641
ISSN: 2044-6055 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010641
PMC: PMC4947747
OpenAlex: W2460276213
Semantic Scholar: 62658ff9d536a2117aed56f19b81b5688fa17d35
Cited by: 638
References: 141
Citations by year: 2026: 43 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 78 · 2023: 84 · 2022: 83 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 1
FWCI: 3.73
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by-nc
Locations: BMJ Open (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Figshare (submittedVersion)
HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
Open Research Exeter (University of Exeter) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
Explore Bristol Research (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Bristol Research (University of Bristol) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders: University of Exeter
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Health, psychology, and well-being
Keywords: well-being, self-report measures, well-being dimensions, psychological well-being, social well-being, physical well-being, spiritual well-being, subjective well-being, WHO definition of health, instrument development, adults
MeSH terms: Activities of Daily Living, Health Status, Humans, Mental Health, Surveys and Questionnaires, Spirituality, Self Report

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Review of 99 self-report measures for assessing well-being in adults: exploring dimensions of well-being and developments over time

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