The DOI matches its Crossref record; 51 of the 51 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 17 of the 50 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities
Open accessAbstract
This essay examines the implications of the COVID-19 pandemic for health inequalities. It outlines historical and contemporary evidence of inequalities in pandemics—drawing on international research into the Spanish influenza pandemic of 1918, the H1N1 outbreak of 2009 and the emerging international estimates of socio-economic, ethnic and geographical inequalities in COVID-19 infection and mortality rates. It then examines how these inequalities in COVID-19 are related to existing inequalities in chronic diseases and the social determinants of health, arguing that we are experiencing a syndemic pandemic . It then explores the potential consequences for health inequalities of the lockdown measures implemented internationally as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on the likely unequal impacts of the economic crisis. The essay concludes by reflecting on the longer-term public health policy responses needed to ensure that the COVID-19 pandemic does not increase health inequalities for future generations.
Overview
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Verification
Claims the paper makes
17 of 50 cited sources checked · 6 supported · 1 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“Similarly, access to healthcare is lower in disadvantaged and marginalised communities-even in universal healthcare systems.32”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Disputedcites [32] Todd A , Copeland A , Kasim A , et al. Access all areas? An area-level analysis of the relationship between community pharmacy and primary care distribution, urbanity and social deprivation in England. BMJ Open 2015;5:e007328. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2014-007328 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Conclusions (page unavailable) report the opposite pattern for the access this study measured: a higher proportion of people in England’s most deprived areas live within a 20-minute walk of a GP premises. The Discussion’s principal findings likewise say GP-premises accessibility was highest in the most deprived areas. The paper measures proximity to GP premises and pharmacies, not healthcare access in general or access among all marginalised communities. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Disputed
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“and across Sweden, there were inequalities in mortality between the highest and lowest occupational classes -particularly among men.7”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [7] source
The Discussion reports social-class differences in excess mortality during the July 1918–June 1919 pandemic and says they were larger among men than women. The Regression results likewise identify low-skilled men as having the highest excess mortality and farmers the lowest; the paper does not claim a uniform class gradient. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In contrast, countries with smaller pre-existing social and economic inequalities, such as New Zealand, did not experience any socio-economic inequalities in mortality.8 9”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [8] Rice G , Bryder L . Black november: the 1918 influenza pandemic in New Zealand . Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 2005.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites [9] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (Univariate results, page unavailable) show no significant trend in mortality risk by occupational class among New Zealand military personnel; the paper also reports no significant occupational-class association in its fully adjusted model. But it does not establish that New Zealand had smaller pre-existing social and economic inequalities or that the country experienced no socioeconomic inequalities in pandemic mortality. The study was restricted to New Zealand military personnel in the Northern Hemisphere, so the claim generalizes beyond its population. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Not matched
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Another study found positive associations between people with financial issues (eg, financial barriers to healthcare access) and influenza-like illnesses during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic in the USA.15”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [15] source
The COMMENT section (page not provided) reports that respondents with financial barriers to healthcare were more likely to report influenza-like illness, even after adjustment for age, medical conditions, and employment. This directly supports the cited association in the US pandemic study. (LLM, conf=0.94)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“For example, globally, Mexico experienced a higher mortality rate than that in higher-income countries.12”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [12] source
The Discussion states that Mexico had higher 2009 pandemic-related mortality rates than the United States, Europe, or Australia. It also compares an estimated 11.1 deaths per 100,000 in Mexico with 4 per 100,000 in the United States. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Various studies on cyclical winter influenza in North America have also found associations between mortality, morbidity and symptom severity and socio-economic status among adults and children.16 17”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [16] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion reports that influenza-related hospitalizations increased as neighborhood socioeconomic status decreased among adults in New Haven County across four seasons. The Introduction also reports an earlier Connecticut finding for children. These passages support an association with hospitalization, but not the claimed associations with mortality or symptom severity across North America. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [17] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Similarly, old-age pensions in the UK were protected from austerity cuts after the GFC and research has suggested that this prevented health inequalities increasing amongst the older population.45”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [45] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Background and Discussion say UK pensioners were largely protected from austerity and suggest that maintaining these benefits may explain why the mental-health gap did not widen in the study’s older cohort. The Conclusion limits that finding to an 18-month study of the most and least deprived neighbourhoods of Stockton-on-Tees; it does not establish that pension protection prevented health inequalities from increasing among the UK’s older population generally. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Housing is also an important factor in driving health inequalities.34”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [34] source
The Introduction describes housing and neighbourhood conditions as an upstream determinant that plays a role in health inequalities. The Abstract also calls them important social determinants of health. Together, these passages support the citing sentence's broad claim. (LLM, conf=0.93)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Decades of research into the psychosocial determinants of health have found that the chronic stress of material and psychological deprivation is associated with immunosuppression.36”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [36] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report that chronic stressors, including unemployment and caregiving, were associated with reduced function on almost all immune measures examined. The Discussion describes the most chronic stressors as associated with broad immunosuppression. The paper does not establish material and psychological deprivation as distinct categories of stressor, so that specificity goes beyond its findings. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Likewise, there is increasing evidence that living in disadvantaged environments may produce a sense of powerlessness and collective threat among residents, leading to chronic stressors that, in time, damage health.39”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [39] source
Section 3.3 (Meso/community level theories; page not provided) states that disadvantaged living environments may produce collective threat and powerlessness, which act as chronic stressors damaging health over time. This directly supports the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.95)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Supported
- It may state two separate claims as one. 21
- Probably not a substantial claim. 2
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Housing also impacts health inequalities materially through costs (eg, as a result of high rents) and psychosocially through insecurity (eg, short-term leases).34”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [34] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (page unavailable) says housing tenure may affect health psychosocially: home ownership may provide greater security than renting, while debt may cause anxiety. It does not identify high rents as a material pathway or short-term leases as the source of insecurity, and it qualifies the tenure effect rather than asserting it outright. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, exposure to poor quality housing is associated with certain health outcomes, for example, damp housing can lead to respiratory diseases such as asthma while overcrowding can result in higher infection rates and increased risk of injury from household accidents.34”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [34] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction says cold and damp housing may cause or exacerbate respiratory conditions, and that some housing-related hazards can cause injuries. The Results identify overcrowding as a housing-risk category, but the passages do not link it specifically to higher infection rates or household-accident injuries. The paper also does not specifically identify asthma as an outcome of damp housing. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“For example, inequalities in premature mortality and infant mortality by income and ethnicity in the USA decreased during the period of welfare expansion in the USA ('war on poverty' era 1966 to 1980), but they increased again during the Reagan-Bush period (1980-2002) when welfare services and healthcare coverage were cut.46”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [46] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The ‘Post-treatment reduction of clinical risk’ and ‘Duration of Follow-Up’ sections discuss antimalarial treatment trials, not US mortality inequalities. Searches for premature and infant mortality by income and ethnicity, the war on poverty, and the Reagan–Bush period found no passage addressing the claimed trends. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“COVID-19 has laid bare our longstanding social, economic and political inequalities -even before the COVID-19 pandemic, life expectancy amongst the poorest groups was already declining in the UK and the USA and health inequalities in some European countries have been increasing over the last decade.50”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > CONCLUSION
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [50] Forster T , Kentikelenis A , Bambra C . Health inequalities in Europe: setting the stage for progressive policy action, Foundation for European Progressive Studies and the Think Tank for Action on Social Change (TASC). 2018. Available https://www.feps-europe.eu/component/attachments/attachments.html?task=attachment&id=168 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The “Healthier but Still Unequal” section (page not provided) reports widening life-expectancy gaps in Denmark and in England between 2010 and 2015, supporting the claim that health inequalities increased in some European countries before COVID-19. It does not establish that life expectancy itself declined among the poorest groups in the UK or USA; the search for that claim found no such passage. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The international literature demonstrates that there were inequalities in prevalence and mortality rates: between high-income and low-income countries, more and less affluent neighbourhoods, higher and lower socio-economic groups, and urban and rural areas.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These health impacts were not shared equally though-areas of the UK with higher unemployment rates had greater increases in suicide rates and inequalities in mental health increased with people living in the most deprived areas experiencing the largest increases in psychiatric morbidity and self-harm.43”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The COVID-19 pandemic is occurring against a backdrop of social and economic inequalities in existing non-communicable diseases (NCDs) as well as inequalities in the social determinants of health.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“With regard to ethnic inequalities in COVID-19, data from England and Wales have found that people who are black, Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) accounted for 34.5% of 4873 critically ill COVID-19 patients (in the period ending April 16, 2020) and much higher than the 11.5% seen for viral pneumonia between 2017 and 2019.20”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [20] Intensive Care National Audit and Research Centre . Report on COVID-19 in critical care 17 April 2020 . London: Intensive Care National Audit and Research Centre, 2020.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: 14% of the population of England and Wales are from BAME backgrounds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For example, in Chicago (in the period ending April 17, 2020), 59.2% of COVID-19 deaths were among black residents and the COVID-19 mortality rate for black Chicagoans was 34.8 per 100 000 population compared to 8.2 per 100 000 population among white residents.21”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [21] Chicago Department of Public Health . COVID-19 death characteristics for Chicago residents. 2020. Available https://www.chicago.gov/city/en/sites/covid-19/home/latest-data.html (accessed 18 Apr 2020).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, lower-paid workers (where BAME groups are disproportionately represented)-particularly in the service sector (eg, food, cleaning or delivery services)-are much more likely to be designated as key workers and thereby are still required to go to work and rely on public transport for doing so.All these increase their exposure to the virus.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Lower socio-economic groups have a higher exposure to poor quality or unaffordable, insecure housing and therefore have a higher rate of negative health consequences.35”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“People with existing chronic conditions (eg, cancer or cardiovascular disease (CVD)) are less likely to receive treatment and diagnosis as health services are overwhelmed by dealing with the pandemic.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Just like the 1918 influenza pandemic (which had severe impacts on economic performance and increased poverty rates), the COVID-19 crisis will have huge economic, social and-ultimately-health consequences.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minority ethnic groups, people living in areas of higher socioeconomic deprivation, those in poverty and other marginalised groups (such as homeless people, prisoners and street-based sex workers) generally have a greater number of coexisting NCDs, which are more severe and experienced at at a younger age.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, deprived neighbourhoods are more likely to contain houses of multiple occupation and smaller houses with a lack of outside space, as well as have higher population densities (particularly in deprived urban areas) and lower access to communal green space.27”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [27] Bambra C . Health divides: where you live can kill you . Bristol: Policy Press, 2016.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Previous research has found that sudden economic shocks (like the collapse of communism in the early 1990s and the global financial crisis (GFC) of 2008 41 ) lead to increases in morbidity, mental ill health, suicide and death from alcohol and substance use.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [41] Stuckler D , Basu S . The body economic. why austerity kills . London: Thomas Allen, 2013.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“So, the health consequences of the COVID-19 economic crisis are likely to be similarly unequally distributed-exacerbating heath inequalities.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The prevalence and severity of the COVID-19 pandemic is magnified because of the pre-existing epidemics of chronic disease-which are themselves socially patterned and associated with the social determinants of health.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Similarly, the Gypsy/Roma community-one of the most marginalised minority groups in Europe-has a smoking rate that is two to three times the European average and increased rates of respiratory diseases (such as COPD) and other COVID-19 risk factors.29”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [29] European commission . Roma health report: health status of the Roma population in the member states of the European union . Brussels: European Commission, 2014.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“These will likely increase COVID-19 transmission rates-as was the case with H1N1 where strong associations were found with urbanity.13”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These state-imposed restrictionsusually requiring the government to take on emergency powershave been implemented to varying levels of severity, but all have in common a significant increase in social isolation and confinement within the home and immediate neighbourhood.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This reduced access to healthcare-before and during the outbreak -contributes to inequalities in chronic disease and is also likely to lead to worse outcomes from COVID-19 in more disadvantaged areas and marginalised communities.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It seems likely that there will be a post-COVID-19 global economic slumpwhich could make the health equity situation even worse, particularly if health-damaging policies of austerity are implemented again.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > CONCLUSION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
14% of the population of England and Wales are from BAME backgrounds.
“Only 14% of the population of England and Wales are from BAME backgrounds.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most countries failed to pursue traditional public health surveillance measures and were forced to implement lockdowns.
“While traditional public health surveillance measures of contact tracing and individual quarantine were successfully pursued by some countries (most notably by South Korea and Germany) as a way of tackling the virus in the early stages, most other countries failed to do so, and governments worldwide were eventually forced to implement mass quarantine measures -in the form of lockdowns.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“What we do know with more certainty is that times of crisis or periods of austerity are likely to disadvantage entire cohorts/generations [60], but that this will amplify prior forms of exclusion and marginalisation [3].”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Conclusion attributes 1918 inequalities to COVID-19
MinorThe conclusion says inequalities both then and now arose through COVID-19. Earlier, the paper identifies the historical inequalities as occurring during the 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic, not the COVID-19 pandemic.
“Both then and now, these inequalities have emerged through the syndemic nature of COVID-19-as it interacts with and exacerbates existing social inequalities in chronic disease and the social determinants of health.”
“More recent studies have confirmed Sydenstricker's early findings: there were significant inequalities in the 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic.”
Citations
Cites
Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health
Marmot, M. G., Friel, S., Bell, R., Houweling, T. A. J., & Taylor, S. A. J. (2008) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(08)61690-6 · Cited by 8,473
Psychological stress and the human immune system: a meta-analytic study of 30 Years of inquiry
Segerstrom, S. C., & Miller, G. E. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.601 · Cited by 3,334 · cited 1×
“Decades of research into the psychosocial determinants of health have found that the chronic stresses of material and psychological deprivation is associated with immunosuppression [36].”
BackgroundAlmond, D. (2006) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/507154 · Cited by 1,190 · cited 1×
“There is also some evidence from the USA that the pandemic had long term impacts on child health and development [11].”
BackgroundMurray, C. J., Lopez, A. D., Chin, B., Feehan, D., & Hill, K. H. (2006) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(06)69895-4 · Cited by 605 · cited 4×
“For example, India had a mortality rate 40 times higher than Denmark and the mortality rate was 20 times higher in some South American countries than in Europe.4 In Norway, mortality rates were highest among the working-class districts of Oslo5; in the USA, they were highest among the unemployed and the urban poor in…”
BackgroundInfluentialGibson, M., Petticrew, M., Bambra, C., Sowden, A. J., Wright, K. E., & Whitehead, M. (2011) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.09.011 · Cited by 539 · cited 2×
“Housing is also an important factor in driving health inequalities [34].”
BackgroundSelf-citationIntroduction to Syndemics: A Critical Systems Approach to Public and Community Health
Singer, M. C. (2009) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 537
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Chen, J. T., & Krieger, N. R. (2020) · Journal of Public Health Management and Practice · doi:10.1097/phh.0000000000001263 · Cited by 487
Clinical Features Predicting Mortality Risk in Patients With Viral Pneumonia: The MuLBSTA Score
Guo, L., Wei, D., Zhang, X., Wu, Y., Li, Q. Y., Zhou, M., & Qu, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2019.02752 · Cited by 412
Gkiouleka, A., Huijts, T., Beckfield, J., & Bambra, C. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.01.025 · Cited by 319
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- Lacobucci G . GPs in deprived areas face severest pressures. BMJ . 2019;365:l2104.
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Shebehe, J., Ottertun, E., Carlén, K., & Gustafson, D. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-11018-x · Cited by 18
“This has been markedly evident during the corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic [41].”
BackgroundLoria, H. M., McLeigh, J. D., Wolfe, K. L., Conner, E., Smith, V. A., Greeley, C. S., & Keefe, R. J. (2021) · Journal of Public Child Welfare · doi:10.1080/15548732.2021.1965065 · Cited by 20
Chang, M., Moonesinghe, R., & Truman, B. I. (2021) · Journal of Public Health Management and Practice · doi:10.1097/phh.0000000000001448 · Cited by 19
Exploring civic behaviors amongst college students in a year of national unrest
Kornbluh, M., Davis, A. L., Hoyt, L. T., et al. (2022) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.22808 · Cited by 19
“While research is limited, prior studies suggest that participants from lower SEP backgrounds are less likely to engage in civic participation as compared to their peers from higher SEP backgrounds (CIRCLE, 2019; Wray‐Lake et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialGullón, P., Cuesta‐Lozano, D., Cuevas-Castillo, C., Fontán‐Vela, M., & Franco, M. (2022) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2022.102830 · Cited by 19
“…in vulnerable communities either in incidence (Marí-Dell’olmo et al., 2021; Whittle and Diaz-Artiles, 2020), hospitalizations (Jannot et al., 2021) and mortality (Bilal et al., 2021b), as it has happened historically with other pandemics and other diseases throughout history (Bambra et al., 2020).”
Smith, M. L., Herbert, A., Hughes, A., Northstone, K., & Howe, L. D. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-14184-8 · Cited by 20
Conceptualising social wellbeing using an international Group Concept Mapping study
Elliott, M., Smith, S. R., Pontin, D., & Wallace, C. A. (2022) · International Journal of Wellbeing · doi:10.5502/ijw.v12i3.1669 · Cited by 26
Changes in Otorhinolaryngologic Disease Incidences before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Korea
Kim, S. Y., Yoo, D. M., Kim, J. H., Kwon, M. J., Kim, J., Chung, J., & Choi, H. G. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192013083 · Cited by 24
“Thus, there has been concern about the inequality of medical care [3].”
BackgroundUnderstanding the spatial heterogeneity of COVID-19 vaccination uptake in England
Chen, H., Cao, Y., Feng, L., Zhao, Q., & Torres, J. R. V. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-15801-w · Cited by 19
“more deprived areas have higher rates of most underlying clinical risk factors that enlarge the severity and mortality of COVID-19 and are therefore more likely to get vaccinated [44].”
BackgroundTracey, D., Gray, T. L., Manohar, N., Kingsley, J., Bailey, A., & Pettitt, P. (2023) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1155/2023/5570089 · Cited by 26
Is society caught up in a Death Spiral? Modeling societal demise and its reversal
Schippers, M. C., Ioannidis, J. P. A., & Luijks, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2024.1194597 · Cited by 26
“These effects were experienced unequally in poorer regions, and among low-skilled workers, exacerbating health inequalities (Bambra et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialCOVID-19 in Wuhan, China: Pressing Realities and City Management
Li, R. Y. M., Yue, G. X.-G., & Crabbe, M. J. C. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.596913 · Cited by 20
“, they cannot go outside easily) and it also amplifies health inequalities (26, 27).”
BackgroundJannot, A., Countouris, H., Straaten, A. V., Burgun, A., Katsahian, S., & Rance, B. (2021) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2020-216068 · Cited by 19
Beaumont, A., Durand, C., Ledrans, M., Schwoebel, V., Noël, H., Strat, Y. L., Diulius, D., Colombain, L., Médus, M., Gueudet, P., et al. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-053201 · Cited by 17
Wildman, J. M., Morris, S. L., Pollard, T. M., Gibson, K., & Moffatt, S. (2021) · SSM - Qualitative Research in Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmqr.2021.100032 · Cited by 18
“The economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic have been un-equally distributed, with people already on lower incomes suffering more fi nancial effects than the more af fl uent (Bambra et al., 2020; Belot et al., 2021).”
Perofsky, A. C., Tempia, S., Bingham, J., Maslo, C., Toubkin, M., Laubscher, A., Walaza, S., Pulliam, J. R. C., Viboud, C. G., & Cohen, C. (2022) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciac055 · Cited by 19
“The public sector has a higher burden of chronic diseases, HIV, and tuberculosis because of these disparities [21], and public sector patients were less likely to receive diagnosis and treatment for any condition when health systems were overwhelmed by the pandemic [36].”
When the worldwide response to the COVID-19 pandemic is done without health promotion
Cambon, L., Bergeron, H., Castel, P., Ridde, V., & Alla, F. (2021) · Global Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/17579759211015129 · Cited by 19
“their living, employment and housing conditions, are particularly vulnerable (2).”
BackgroundBouckley, T., Peiris, D., Nambiar, D., Mishra, S., Sood, T., Purwar, P., Elshaug, A. G., Landon, B. E., Pearson, S., Schneider, C. H., et al. (2025) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-025-02436-z · Cited by 24
“COVID-19 related health system reform initiatives have highlighted the limitations of universal approaches [21, 22], where government policies rarely managed to achieve equitable outcomes [23, 24].”
Older adults living in social housing in Canada: the next COVID-19 hotspot?
Pirrie, M., & Agarwal, G. (2021) · Canadian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.17269/s41997-020-00462-8 · Cited by 18
“However, as the pandemic continues, health inequalities in vulnerable populations have become more evident (Bambra et al. 2020).”
BackgroundGaume, J., Schmutz, E., Daeppen, J., & Zobel, F. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18094960 · Cited by 18
“Recent studies suggest that those who are more vulnerable, such as the homeless [45] and those who have lower socioeconomic status [46,47], are more affected by the pandemic.”
BackgroundCuschieri, S., & Mamo, J. A. (2021) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckab156 · Cited by 18
COVID-19 and social inequalities: a complex and dynamic interaction
Quantin, C., & Tubert‐Bitter, P. (2022) · The Lancet Public Health · doi:10.1016/s2468-2667(22)00033-0 · Cited by 18
Factors impacting the use of the NZ COVID Tracer application in New Zealand"
Ali, Z. S., & Dang, H. (2022) · Smart Health · doi:10.1016/j.smhl.2022.100278 · Cited by 18
Spadafora, N., Reid‐Westoby, C., Pottruff, M. M., & Janus, M. (2022) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2022.103735 · Cited by 18
Iglesias-Martínez, E., Roces-García, J., Arberas, E. J., & Llosa, J. A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19148849 · Cited by 19
“Therefore, public health policies must be implemented to ensure that the COVID-19 pandemic does not cause long-term increases in social inequality among future generations [45] and especially in women, as shown in this study, and to ensure that mental health is taken into account.”
BackgroundWiessing, L. G., Sypsa, V., Abagiu, A. O., Arble, A., Berndt, N., Bosch, A., Buskin, S. E., Chemtob, D., Combs, B., Conyngham, C., et al. (2022) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-022-03851-x · Cited by 18
Kuo, W., Ersig, A. L., Kunkul, F., Brown, R., & Oakley, L. D. (2022) · Research in Nursing & Health · doi:10.1002/nur.22278 · Cited by 17
“disparities because it hits savings and income harder for poorer or middle‐class households than for wealthy households (Bambra et al., 2020; Cingano, 2014; Margerison‐Zilko et al., 2016).”
BackgroundCOVID-19 and common mental disorders among university students in South Africa
Bantjes, J. R., Swanevelder, S. A., Jordaan, E., Sampson, N. A., Petukhova, M. V., Löchner, C., Stein, D. J., & Kessler, R. C. (2023) · South African Journal of Science · doi:10.17159/sajs.2023/13594 · Cited by 18
“(a) 2015 (n=686) 2017 (n=440) 2020 (n=504) 2015 vs 2017 2017 vs 2020 n % SE n % SE n % SE X2(1) p X2(1) p MDE 140 20.”
BackgroundInfluentialRefle, J.-E., Fakhoury, J., Burton‐Jeangros, C., Consoli, L., & Jackson, Y. (2023) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2023.101398 · Cited by 18
Júnior, W. M. R., Ferreira, L. N., Bastos, C. G. M., Júnior, J. P. B., Reis, H. F. T., & de Goulart, B. N. G. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-17564-w · Cited by 18
“Economically underserved populations and ethnic minority groups have higher rates of nearly all clinical risk factors that increase the severity and mortality of COVID-19 [78].”
BackgroundPrice, T., McGowan, V. J., Visram, S., Wildman, J., & Bambra, C. L. (2024) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103346 · Cited by 19
“…that sought to address geographical inequalities, (Fransham et al., 2023), the economic and health gaps between the North and South have grown in England since 2010 (Taylor-Robinson et al., 2019) and were further exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic (Bambra et al., 2020; Robinson et al., 2020).”
Self-citationRennert, L., Gezer, F., Jayawardena, I., Howard, K. A., Bennett, K. J., Litwin, A. H., & Sease, K. K. (2024) · Public Health in Practice · doi:10.1016/j.puhip.2024.100550 · Cited by 20
Bajaj, S., Bajaj, S., Chen, S., et al. (2024) · The Lancet Digital Health · doi:10.1016/s2589-7500(24)00169-9 · Cited by 18
The relation between the social and the biological and COVID-19
Kelly, M. P. (2021) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2021.05.003 · Cited by 19
Clinical and epidemiological characteristics of COVID-19 mortality in Saudi Arabia
Alsayer, R. M., Alsharif, H., Baadani, A. M., & Kalam, K. (2021) · Saudi Medical Journal · doi:10.15537/smj.2021.42.10.20210396 · Cited by 18
Spatial inequality in sub-Saharan Africa
Shifa, M., & Leibbrandt, M. (2022) · African Geographical Review · doi:10.1080/19376812.2022.2099916 · Cited by 19
“Moreover, inequalities in access to basic services are associated with inequalities in the prevalence and severity of the COVID-19 pandemic and capacity to deal with the pandemic (Bambra et al., 2020; Brown et al., (2020); Shifa et al., 2021; Brewer et al., 2021).”
BackgroundBarnard, S., Fryers, P., Fitzpatrick, J., Fox, S. S., Waller, Z., Baker, A., Burton, P. R., Newton, J. N., Doyle, Y., & Goldblatt, P. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-052646 · Cited by 17
Ferreira, M. C. (2020) · Geospatial health · doi:10.4081/gh.2020.921 · Cited by 18
Lotta, G., & Kuhlmann, E. (2020) · The International Journal of Health Planning and Management · doi:10.1002/hpm.3104 · Cited by 17
Fernández-Niño, J. A., Peña-Maldonado, C., Rojas-Botero, M. L., & Rodríguez-Villamizar, L. A. (2021) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2021.07.013 · Cited by 17
The Racialized Pandemic: Wave One of COVID-19 and the Reproduction of Global North Inequalities
Hooijer, G., & King, D. S. (2021) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s153759272100195x · Cited by 19
Aykaç, N., & Etiler, N. (2021) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-021-16624-1 · Cited by 17
“And the mortality rates experienced in the poorest neighborhoods in Britain were at least three times higher than in the least poor neighborhoods (Bambra et al. 2020).”
BackgroundAguilar‐Latorre, A., Oliván‐Blázquez, B., Porroche‐Escudero, A., Méndez-López, F., García-Gallego, V., Benedé-Azagra, B., & Magallón-Botaya, R. M. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-13083-2 · Cited by 19
“Findings confirm existing evidence that low-income areas are hit harder by the epidemic as they tend to have a lack of space [50] – in this case, balconies or gardens that integrate the benefits of the outdoors (nature and people) into the safety of the home.”
BackgroundInfluentialStatic Socio-Ecological COVID-19 Vulnerability Index and Vaccine Hesitancy Index for England
Welsh, C. E., Sinclair, D. R., & Matthews, F. E. (2021) · The Lancet Regional Health - Europe · doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100296 · Cited by 17
Self-citationAngelici, L., Sorge, C., Martino, M. D., Cappai, G., Stafoggia, M., Agabiti, N., Girardi, E., Lanini, S., Nicastri, E., Davoli, M., et al. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11030877 · Cited by 17
“Although in the early days of the epidemic, the media hypothesized that the pandemic would become a great leveler, hitting the population without distinctions, it soon became clear that it would be the opposite, as in the historical epidemics of the past, from the 1630 plague to the 1930 Spanish influenza or the 2009…”
BackgroundInfluentialInequality in Pulmonary Rehabilitation – The challenges magnified by the COVID-19 pandemic
Gardiner, L., & Singh, S. J. (2022) · Chronic Respiratory Disease · doi:10.1177/14799731221104098 · Cited by 17
“People living with chronic disease in the most deprived areas, from ethnic minority backgrounds and/ or of older age are at increased risk COVID-19 related morbidity and mortality.(14) The rapid transition to remotely delivered models of PR (often reliant on digital access and literacy), has magnified existing digital…”
BackgroundGustafsson, P. E., Fonseca‐Rodríguez, O., Nilsson, I., & Sebastiån, M. S. (2022) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115447 · Cited by 20
Oña, A., Kyriakides, A., Tederko, P., et al. (2023) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-023-01848-z · Cited by 17
“Introduction Despite the remarkable progress in health indicators worldwide, inequalities persist and in many cases are increasing between and within countries [1], a reality that became more evident after the COVID-19 pandemic [2].”
BackgroundMabetha, D., Ojewola, T., van der Merwe, M., Mabika, R., Goosen, G., Sigudla, J., Hove, J., Witter, S., & D’Ambruoso, L. (2023) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-023-01894-7 · Cited by 20
“2 million deaths globally from COVID-19, essential services have been devastated, with health inequalities widening and deepening as prevalence clusters by social disadvantage (2)(3).”
BackgroundThe Impact of Health Geography on Public Health Research, Policy, and Practice in Canada
Vine, M. M., Mulligan, K., Harris, R., & Dean, J. A. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20186735 · Cited by 18
Fulop, N., Walton, H., Crellin, N. E., Georghiou, T., Herlitz, L., Litchfield, I. J., Massou, E., Sherlaw‐Johnson, C., Sidhu, M. S., Tomini, S. M., et al. (2023) · Health and Social Care Delivery Research · doi:10.3310/fvqw4410 · Cited by 18
Beyond Healing: Embracing the Triple Bottom Line Approach in Post-pandemic Healthcare
Alim, M., & Sulley, S. (2024) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.54019 · Cited by 26
“The pandemic brought the issue of social sustainability right to the fore of the health policy agenda, helping to re-center attention on health as a universal basic social entitlement, implying the need to make health care inclusive and equitable [12].”
BackgroundGillibrand, S., Kapadia, D., Watkinson, R., Issa, B., Kwaku‐Odoi, C., & Sanders, C. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-18308-0 · Cited by 19
“The pandemic has disproportionately impacted mar-ginalised groups, such as minoritised ethnic groups, people living in deprived areas, people with poor health and long-term health conditions and people with learning disabilities [31, 32].”
BackgroundCase, A. C., & Kraftman, L. (2023) · Oxford Open Economics · doi:10.1093/ooec/odad060 · Cited by 23
Mainstreaming of Health Equity in Infectious Disease Control Policy During the COVID-19 Pandemic Era
Choi, H., Kim, S.-Y., Kim, J.-W., et al. (2021) · Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.3961/jpmph.20.593 · Cited by 17
“J Epidemiol Community Health 2020;74(11):964-968 [11].”
BackgroundAirports, highways and COVID-19: An analysis of spatial dynamics in Brazil
de Souza, C. D. F., Machado, M. F., da Silva, A. G., et al. (2021) · Journal of Transport & Health · doi:10.1016/j.jth.2021.101067 · Cited by 17
“Besides the aspects related to the state’s highways and airways, it is pertinent to highlight the importance of other factors that when present in the territories favor spatial dispersion, among which are the population’s living conditions and the social dynamics in different countries and regions (de Souza et al., 20…”
Mermelstein, S., & Stevens, H. (2021) · Pharmaceutics · doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics14010048 · Cited by 17
“Lastly, most COVID-19 health technologies, such as MPP-licensed molnupiravir, were invented in US and UK universities, supported with taxpayer money [15,72,83].”
BackgroundGeorghiou, T., Sherlaw‐Johnson, C., Massou, E., Stephen Morris, A., Crellin, N. E., Herlitz, L., Sidhu, M. S., Tomini, S. M., Vindrola‐Padros, C., Walton, H., et al. (2022) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101441 · Cited by 20
“A secondary aim, in the context of COVID-19 0 s widely reported differential effects on outcomes for groups of patients (for example, by gender, age and ethnicity), 22,23 was to reflect on associations found between patient characteristics and hospital outcomes.”
Reimagining Undergraduate Medical Education in a Post-COVID-19 Landscape
Guo, M. Z., Allen, J., Sakumoto, M., Pahwa, A. K., & Santhosh, L. (2022) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-022-07503-7 · Cited by 18
Suratana, S., Tamornpark, R., Apidechkul, T., Srichan, P., Mulikaburt, T., Wongnuch, P., Kitchanapaibul, S., Yeemard, F., & Udplong, A. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0252326 · Cited by 17
“[41] reported that under lockdown interventions to prevent and control COVID-19, elderly populations in most countries had limited access to medical care.”
BackgroundBajos, N., Jusot, F., Pailhé, A., Spire, A., Martin, C., Meyer, L., Lydié, N., Franck, J.-E., Zins, M., Carrat, F., et al. (2020) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.10.07.20208595 · Cited by 17
Kiran, T., Eissa, A., Mangin, D. A., Bayoumi, I., Ivers, N. M., Newbery, S., Muggah, E., Rayner, J., Nowak, D. A., Jaakkimainen, L., et al. (2022) · doi:10.47326/ocsat.2022.03.67.1.0 · Cited by 18
Heinz, S. S., O'Brien, A. J., Walker, C. G., O’Sullivan, M., Rouse, P., Whitehead, J., Parsons, M. J. G., Cunningham, R., & Edmonds, M. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-24897-1 · Cited by 24
“Such crises affect psychological wellbeing, strain community support structures, undermine economic foundations, and widen existing disparities [20, 21].”
Covid-19: Keeping schools as safe as possible
Fontanet, A. L., Grant, R., Greve‐Isdahl, M., & Sridhar, D. (2021) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.n524 · Cited by 16
Park, B.-M., & Lee, H. (2021) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare9081014 · Cited by 16
“responses at government levels must call [46] for the expansion of essential healthcare [38], equitable allocation of resources [46], and balance [42].”
BackgroundSpatial Analysis of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Hungary
Uzzoli, A., Kovács, S. Z., Fábiàn, A., et al. (2021) · REGION · doi:10.18335/region.v8i2.343 · Cited by 16
“The new coronavirus pandemic will also affect the spatial distribution of health inequalities in the future, leading to their intensification and the emergence of new types of inequalities (Bambra et al. 2020, Kovács et al. 2020).”
BackgroundLópez‐Medina, E., Camacho‐Moreno, G., Brizuela, M. E., Davalos, D. M., Torres, J. P., Ulloa‐Gutiérrez, R., López, P., Debbag, R., Pérez, P., Patiño, J., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Pediatrics · doi:10.3389/fped.2022.868297 · Cited by 16
“Disparities in health determinants like economic instability, insurance status and housing conditions of patients and their families have consistently placed social, racial, and ethnic minorities at greater risk for severe illness by COVID-19 (31).”
BackgroundMartin, P., Lizarondo, L. M., Argus, G., Kumar, S., & Kondalsamy‐Chennakesavan, S. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19095555 · Cited by 16
“This becomes more crucial in these unprecedented times as these disadvantaged regions are said to experience higher COVID-19 mortality and morbidity rates [21].”
BackgroundFowler‐Davis, S., Young, R., Maden‐Wilkinson, T., Hameed, W., Dracas, E., Hurrell, E., Bahl, R., Kilcourse, E., Robinson, R., & Copeland, R. J. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182413191 · Cited by 14
“There is historical and contemporary evidence of some communities who have more limited access to care and health services [14] with accumulated or aggregated disadvantage rather than ‘simply’ material deprivation exasperating health inequalities and the implementation design needs to reflect this knowledge.”
BackgroundExceso de mortalidad en población en edad de trabajar en nueve países de Latinoamérica, año 2020
Benavides, F. G., Vives, A., Zimmerman, M., & Silva-Peñaherrera, M. (2022) · Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública · doi:10.26633/rpsp.2022.75 · Cited by 16
“HOMBRES EXCESO DE MUERTES (15-69) INDICADOR-P (”
BackgroundInfluentialLubetkin, E. I., Long, D., Haagsma, J. A., Janssen, M. F., & Bonsel, G. J. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0272252 · Cited by 16
“As a result of governmental public health and policy responses at the national and state levels, which include containment and closure policies, economic policies, health system policies and vaccine policies [6, 7], COVID-19 may be associated with psychological, social, and economic effects, and these effects may diff…”
BackgroundLutchmun, W., Gach, J., Borup, C., & Froeschl, G. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-14023-w · Cited by 16
“The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has significantly aggravated pre-existing socio-economic and health inequalities worldwide [23].”
BackgroundBortel, T. V. V., Lombardo, C., Guo, L., Solomon, S., Martin, S. A., Hughes, K., Weeks, L., Crepaz‐Keay, D., McDaid, S., Chantler, O., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.875198 · Cited by 16
“The seven main themes emerging from the interviews focus around (1) the respondents’ pandemic-specific mental health and wellbeing experiences, (2) issues relating to the media, (3) coping mechanisms, (4) worries around and attitudes toward vaccinations, (5) suggestions for support needs in moving forward, (6) the bes…”
BackgroundMoffatt, S., Wildman, J., Pollard, T. M., Gibson, K., Wildman, J. M., O’Brien, N., Griffith, B., Morris, S. L., Moloney, E., Jeffries, J. M., et al. (2023) · Public Health Research · doi:10.3310/aqxc8219 · Cited by 17
Pathways to ethnic inequalities in COVID-19 health outcomes in the United Kingdom: A systematic map
Irizar, P., Kapadia, D., Amele, S., Bécares, L., Divall, P., Katikireddi, S. V., Kibuchi, E., Kneale, D., McCabe, R., Nazroo, J. Y., et al. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116044 · Cited by 17
COVID-19 fatality rates in hospitalized patients: A new systematic review and meta-analysis
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“Health inequity has also been reported to be a common issue in the pandemic, which caused greater impact on those from ethnic minority groups, those in poverty, and those with limited access to health care (Bambra et al., 2020).”
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“This could help address health inequalities, which have been highlighted by the COVID-19 pandemic [22].”
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“It is therefore to be expected that most studies have shown that the COVID-19 infection rate and casefatality rate of low-income people are high [38,39,40,41].”
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Avoiding a legacy of unequal non-communicable disease burden after the COVID-19 pandemic
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“It is hoped that this will avoid further compounding of the substantial pre-existing health inequalities which have worsened during the pandemic [2,3].”
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“It is believed, rather than being a genetic difference, that this is most likely caused by structural inequalities in healthcare such as higher risk of comorbidities, for example, cardiovascular diseases [44], as well as socioeconomic inequalities such as being more likely to live in urban areas, working customer faci…”
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“The realisation of this aim may be substantially delayed since COVID-19 has disproportionately affected the health and mortality of the least affluent [36], in part thought to be due to the difference in prevalence of comorbid health conditions [37,38].”
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“It has also brought to light the gross social inequities in the system, as particular social groups are more adversely affected by the pandemic than others (Bambra et al., 2020; Kim & Bostwick, 2020; Thakur et al., 2020).”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Bambra, C., Riordan, R., Ford, J., & Matthews, F.
- Affiliations
- Newcastle University (GB)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Bambra, Clare
- Venue
- Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2020-06-13
- Volume
- 74
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 964-968
- ISSN
- 0141-7681 (ISSN-L)
- 0143-005X
- 1470-2738
- PMC
- PMC7298201
- OpenAlex
- W3034285292
- Cited by
- 2,118
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 216 · 2025: 196 · 2024: 298 · 2023: 364 · 2022: 508 · 2021: 454 · 2020: 80
- FWCI
- 174.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Repository@Hull (Worktribe) (University of Hull) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Newcastle University ePrints (Newcastle Univesity)
- Funders
- National Institute for Health Research (NIHR200173)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Public Health and Social Inequalities
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Healthcare Systems and Challenges
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, health disparities, syndemic, social determinants of health, socioeconomic disparities, ethnic inequality, regional disparities, economic impact of lockdown, public health policy
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Humans, Pneumonia, Viral, Socioeconomic Factors, Coronavirus Infections, Health Status Disparities, Healthcare Disparities, Pandemics, Social Determinants of Health
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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