The DOI matches its Crossref record; 51 of the 51 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 17 of the 50 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities
Open accessAbstract
This essay examines the implications of the COVID-19 pandemic for health inequalities. It outlines historical and contemporary evidence of inequalities in pandemics—drawing on international research into the Spanish influenza pandemic of 1918, the H1N1 outbreak of 2009 and the emerging international estimates of socio-economic, ethnic and geographical inequalities in COVID-19 infection and mortality rates. It then examines how these inequalities in COVID-19 are related to existing inequalities in chronic diseases and the social determinants of health, arguing that we are experiencing a syndemic pandemic . It then explores the potential consequences for health inequalities of the lockdown measures implemented internationally as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on the likely unequal impacts of the economic crisis. The essay concludes by reflecting on the longer-term public health policy responses needed to ensure that the COVID-19 pandemic does not increase health inequalities for future generations.
Overview
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Verification
Claims the paper makes
17 of 50 cited sources checked · 6 supported · 1 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“Similarly, access to healthcare is lower in disadvantaged and marginalised communities-even in universal healthcare systems.32”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Disputedcites [32] Todd A , Copeland A , Kasim A , et al. Access all areas? An area-level analysis of the relationship between community pharmacy and primary care distribution, urbanity and social deprivation in England. BMJ Open 2015;5:e007328. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2014-007328 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Conclusions (page unavailable) report the opposite pattern for the access this study measured: a higher proportion of people in England’s most deprived areas live within a 20-minute walk of a GP premises. The Discussion’s principal findings likewise say GP-premises accessibility was highest in the most deprived areas. The paper measures proximity to GP premises and pharmacies, not healthcare access in general or access among all marginalised communities. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Disputed
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“and across Sweden, there were inequalities in mortality between the highest and lowest occupational classes -particularly among men.7”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [7] source
The Discussion reports social-class differences in excess mortality during the July 1918–June 1919 pandemic and says they were larger among men than women. The Regression results likewise identify low-skilled men as having the highest excess mortality and farmers the lowest; the paper does not claim a uniform class gradient. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In contrast, countries with smaller pre-existing social and economic inequalities, such as New Zealand, did not experience any socio-economic inequalities in mortality.8 9”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [8] Rice G , Bryder L . Black november: the 1918 influenza pandemic in New Zealand . Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 2005.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites [9] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (Univariate results, page unavailable) show no significant trend in mortality risk by occupational class among New Zealand military personnel; the paper also reports no significant occupational-class association in its fully adjusted model. But it does not establish that New Zealand had smaller pre-existing social and economic inequalities or that the country experienced no socioeconomic inequalities in pandemic mortality. The study was restricted to New Zealand military personnel in the Northern Hemisphere, so the claim generalizes beyond its population. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Not matched
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Another study found positive associations between people with financial issues (eg, financial barriers to healthcare access) and influenza-like illnesses during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic in the USA.15”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [15] source
The COMMENT section (page not provided) reports that respondents with financial barriers to healthcare were more likely to report influenza-like illness, even after adjustment for age, medical conditions, and employment. This directly supports the cited association in the US pandemic study. (LLM, conf=0.94)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“For example, globally, Mexico experienced a higher mortality rate than that in higher-income countries.12”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [12] source
The Discussion states that Mexico had higher 2009 pandemic-related mortality rates than the United States, Europe, or Australia. It also compares an estimated 11.1 deaths per 100,000 in Mexico with 4 per 100,000 in the United States. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Various studies on cyclical winter influenza in North America have also found associations between mortality, morbidity and symptom severity and socio-economic status among adults and children.16 17”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [16] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion reports that influenza-related hospitalizations increased as neighborhood socioeconomic status decreased among adults in New Haven County across four seasons. The Introduction also reports an earlier Connecticut finding for children. These passages support an association with hospitalization, but not the claimed associations with mortality or symptom severity across North America. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [17] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Similarly, old-age pensions in the UK were protected from austerity cuts after the GFC and research has suggested that this prevented health inequalities increasing amongst the older population.45”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [45] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Background and Discussion say UK pensioners were largely protected from austerity and suggest that maintaining these benefits may explain why the mental-health gap did not widen in the study’s older cohort. The Conclusion limits that finding to an 18-month study of the most and least deprived neighbourhoods of Stockton-on-Tees; it does not establish that pension protection prevented health inequalities from increasing among the UK’s older population generally. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Housing is also an important factor in driving health inequalities.34”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [34] source
The Introduction describes housing and neighbourhood conditions as an upstream determinant that plays a role in health inequalities. The Abstract also calls them important social determinants of health. Together, these passages support the citing sentence's broad claim. (LLM, conf=0.93)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Decades of research into the psychosocial determinants of health have found that the chronic stress of material and psychological deprivation is associated with immunosuppression.36”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [36] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report that chronic stressors, including unemployment and caregiving, were associated with reduced function on almost all immune measures examined. The Discussion describes the most chronic stressors as associated with broad immunosuppression. The paper does not establish material and psychological deprivation as distinct categories of stressor, so that specificity goes beyond its findings. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Likewise, there is increasing evidence that living in disadvantaged environments may produce a sense of powerlessness and collective threat among residents, leading to chronic stressors that, in time, damage health.39”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [39] source
Section 3.3 (Meso/community level theories; page not provided) states that disadvantaged living environments may produce collective threat and powerlessness, which act as chronic stressors damaging health over time. This directly supports the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.95)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Supported
- It may state two separate claims as one. 21
- Probably not a substantial claim. 2
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Housing also impacts health inequalities materially through costs (eg, as a result of high rents) and psychosocially through insecurity (eg, short-term leases).34”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [34] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (page unavailable) says housing tenure may affect health psychosocially: home ownership may provide greater security than renting, while debt may cause anxiety. It does not identify high rents as a material pathway or short-term leases as the source of insecurity, and it qualifies the tenure effect rather than asserting it outright. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, exposure to poor quality housing is associated with certain health outcomes, for example, damp housing can lead to respiratory diseases such as asthma while overcrowding can result in higher infection rates and increased risk of injury from household accidents.34”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [34] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction says cold and damp housing may cause or exacerbate respiratory conditions, and that some housing-related hazards can cause injuries. The Results identify overcrowding as a housing-risk category, but the passages do not link it specifically to higher infection rates or household-accident injuries. The paper also does not specifically identify asthma as an outcome of damp housing. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“For example, inequalities in premature mortality and infant mortality by income and ethnicity in the USA decreased during the period of welfare expansion in the USA ('war on poverty' era 1966 to 1980), but they increased again during the Reagan-Bush period (1980-2002) when welfare services and healthcare coverage were cut.46”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [46] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The ‘Post-treatment reduction of clinical risk’ and ‘Duration of Follow-Up’ sections discuss antimalarial treatment trials, not US mortality inequalities. Searches for premature and infant mortality by income and ethnicity, the war on poverty, and the Reagan–Bush period found no passage addressing the claimed trends. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“COVID-19 has laid bare our longstanding social, economic and political inequalities -even before the COVID-19 pandemic, life expectancy amongst the poorest groups was already declining in the UK and the USA and health inequalities in some European countries have been increasing over the last decade.50”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > CONCLUSION
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [50] Forster T , Kentikelenis A , Bambra C . Health inequalities in Europe: setting the stage for progressive policy action, Foundation for European Progressive Studies and the Think Tank for Action on Social Change (TASC). 2018. Available https://www.feps-europe.eu/component/attachments/attachments.html?task=attachment&id=168 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The “Healthier but Still Unequal” section (page not provided) reports widening life-expectancy gaps in Denmark and in England between 2010 and 2015, supporting the claim that health inequalities increased in some European countries before COVID-19. It does not establish that life expectancy itself declined among the poorest groups in the UK or USA; the search for that claim found no such passage. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The international literature demonstrates that there were inequalities in prevalence and mortality rates: between high-income and low-income countries, more and less affluent neighbourhoods, higher and lower socio-economic groups, and urban and rural areas.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These health impacts were not shared equally though-areas of the UK with higher unemployment rates had greater increases in suicide rates and inequalities in mental health increased with people living in the most deprived areas experiencing the largest increases in psychiatric morbidity and self-harm.43”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The COVID-19 pandemic is occurring against a backdrop of social and economic inequalities in existing non-communicable diseases (NCDs) as well as inequalities in the social determinants of health.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“With regard to ethnic inequalities in COVID-19, data from England and Wales have found that people who are black, Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) accounted for 34.5% of 4873 critically ill COVID-19 patients (in the period ending April 16, 2020) and much higher than the 11.5% seen for viral pneumonia between 2017 and 2019.20”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [20] Intensive Care National Audit and Research Centre . Report on COVID-19 in critical care 17 April 2020 . London: Intensive Care National Audit and Research Centre, 2020.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: 14% of the population of England and Wales are from BAME backgrounds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For example, in Chicago (in the period ending April 17, 2020), 59.2% of COVID-19 deaths were among black residents and the COVID-19 mortality rate for black Chicagoans was 34.8 per 100 000 population compared to 8.2 per 100 000 population among white residents.21”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [21] Chicago Department of Public Health . COVID-19 death characteristics for Chicago residents. 2020. Available https://www.chicago.gov/city/en/sites/covid-19/home/latest-data.html (accessed 18 Apr 2020).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, lower-paid workers (where BAME groups are disproportionately represented)-particularly in the service sector (eg, food, cleaning or delivery services)-are much more likely to be designated as key workers and thereby are still required to go to work and rely on public transport for doing so.All these increase their exposure to the virus.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Lower socio-economic groups have a higher exposure to poor quality or unaffordable, insecure housing and therefore have a higher rate of negative health consequences.35”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“People with existing chronic conditions (eg, cancer or cardiovascular disease (CVD)) are less likely to receive treatment and diagnosis as health services are overwhelmed by dealing with the pandemic.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Just like the 1918 influenza pandemic (which had severe impacts on economic performance and increased poverty rates), the COVID-19 crisis will have huge economic, social and-ultimately-health consequences.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minority ethnic groups, people living in areas of higher socioeconomic deprivation, those in poverty and other marginalised groups (such as homeless people, prisoners and street-based sex workers) generally have a greater number of coexisting NCDs, which are more severe and experienced at at a younger age.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, deprived neighbourhoods are more likely to contain houses of multiple occupation and smaller houses with a lack of outside space, as well as have higher population densities (particularly in deprived urban areas) and lower access to communal green space.27”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [27] Bambra C . Health divides: where you live can kill you . Bristol: Policy Press, 2016.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Previous research has found that sudden economic shocks (like the collapse of communism in the early 1990s and the global financial crisis (GFC) of 2008 41 ) lead to increases in morbidity, mental ill health, suicide and death from alcohol and substance use.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [41] Stuckler D , Basu S . The body economic. why austerity kills . London: Thomas Allen, 2013.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“So, the health consequences of the COVID-19 economic crisis are likely to be similarly unequally distributed-exacerbating heath inequalities.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The prevalence and severity of the COVID-19 pandemic is magnified because of the pre-existing epidemics of chronic disease-which are themselves socially patterned and associated with the social determinants of health.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Similarly, the Gypsy/Roma community-one of the most marginalised minority groups in Europe-has a smoking rate that is two to three times the European average and increased rates of respiratory diseases (such as COPD) and other COVID-19 risk factors.29”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [29] European commission . Roma health report: health status of the Roma population in the member states of the European union . Brussels: European Commission, 2014.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“These will likely increase COVID-19 transmission rates-as was the case with H1N1 where strong associations were found with urbanity.13”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These state-imposed restrictionsusually requiring the government to take on emergency powershave been implemented to varying levels of severity, but all have in common a significant increase in social isolation and confinement within the home and immediate neighbourhood.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This reduced access to healthcare-before and during the outbreak -contributes to inequalities in chronic disease and is also likely to lead to worse outcomes from COVID-19 in more disadvantaged areas and marginalised communities.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It seems likely that there will be a post-COVID-19 global economic slumpwhich could make the health equity situation even worse, particularly if health-damaging policies of austerity are implemented again.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > CONCLUSION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
14% of the population of England and Wales are from BAME backgrounds.
“Only 14% of the population of England and Wales are from BAME backgrounds.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most countries failed to pursue traditional public health surveillance measures and were forced to implement lockdowns.
“While traditional public health surveillance measures of contact tracing and individual quarantine were successfully pursued by some countries (most notably by South Korea and Germany) as a way of tackling the virus in the early stages, most other countries failed to do so, and governments worldwide were eventually forced to implement mass quarantine measures -in the form of lockdowns.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“What we do know with more certainty is that times of crisis or periods of austerity are likely to disadvantage entire cohorts/generations [60], but that this will amplify prior forms of exclusion and marginalisation [3].”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Conclusion attributes 1918 inequalities to COVID-19
MinorThe conclusion says inequalities both then and now arose through COVID-19. Earlier, the paper identifies the historical inequalities as occurring during the 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic, not the COVID-19 pandemic.
“Both then and now, these inequalities have emerged through the syndemic nature of COVID-19-as it interacts with and exacerbates existing social inequalities in chronic disease and the social determinants of health.”
“More recent studies have confirmed Sydenstricker's early findings: there were significant inequalities in the 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic.”
Citations
Cites
Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health
Marmot, M. G., Friel, S., Bell, R., Houweling, T. A. J., & Taylor, S. A. J. (2008) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(08)61690-6 · Cited by 8,473
Psychological stress and the human immune system: a meta-analytic study of 30 Years of inquiry
Segerstrom, S. C., & Miller, G. E. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.601 · Cited by 3,334 · cited 1×
“Decades of research into the psychosocial determinants of health have found that the chronic stresses of material and psychological deprivation is associated with immunosuppression [36].”
BackgroundAlmond, D. (2006) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/507154 · Cited by 1,190 · cited 1×
“There is also some evidence from the USA that the pandemic had long term impacts on child health and development [11].”
BackgroundMurray, C. J., Lopez, A. D., Chin, B., Feehan, D., & Hill, K. H. (2006) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(06)69895-4 · Cited by 605 · cited 4×
“For example, India had a mortality rate 40 times higher than Denmark and the mortality rate was 20 times higher in some South American countries than in Europe.4 In Norway, mortality rates were highest among the working-class districts of Oslo5; in the USA, they were highest among the unemployed and the urban poor in…”
BackgroundInfluentialGibson, M., Petticrew, M., Bambra, C., Sowden, A. J., Wright, K. E., & Whitehead, M. (2011) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.09.011 · Cited by 539 · cited 2×
“Housing is also an important factor in driving health inequalities [34].”
BackgroundSelf-citationIntroduction to Syndemics: A Critical Systems Approach to Public and Community Health
Singer, M. C. (2009) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 537
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Clinical Features Predicting Mortality Risk in Patients With Viral Pneumonia: The MuLBSTA Score
Guo, L., Wei, D., Zhang, X., Wu, Y., Li, Q. Y., Zhou, M., & Qu, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2019.02752 · Cited by 412
Gkiouleka, A., Huijts, T., Beckfield, J., & Bambra, C. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.01.025 · Cited by 319
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- Lacobucci G . GPs in deprived areas face severest pressures. BMJ . 2019;365:l2104.
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The direct disease burden of COVID-19 in Belgium in 2020 and 2021
Devleesschauwer, B., Willem, L., Jurčević, J., Smith, P., Scohy, A., Wyper, G. M. A., Pires, S. M., Goethem, N. V., Beutels, P., Franco, N., et al. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-16572-0 · Cited by 7
“Furthermore, it is important to not only evaluate the direct impact of the COVID19 pandemic on population health, but also study the long-term indirect impact such as the disruption of the utilisation of vital health care services [50], increased mental health problems [51], risk of increase in health inequalities [52…”
BackgroundMarquis, S., O’Leary, R., Bandara, N. A., & Baumbusch, J. (2023) · Clinical Ethics · doi:10.1177/14777509231196704 · Cited by 8
Kopasker, D., Katikireddi, S. V., Santos, J. V., et al. (2023) · The Lancet Regional Health - Europe · doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2023.100758 · Cited by 7
Self-citationOjukwu, E. N., Pashaei, Z., Maia, J. C., et al. (2024) · European journal of medical research · doi:10.1186/s40001-024-01917-1 · Cited by 7
“Among the most underprivileged and disadvantaged in the era of pandemic are PLWH, people at risk of contracting HIV such as sex workers, people who inject drugs and men who have sex with men and people with other autoimmune diseases [8].”
BackgroundContact tracers as knowledge-makers
Liebel, A. M. (2020) · Journal of Communications In Healthcare · doi:10.1080/17538068.2020.1818417 · Cited by 7
The Syndemic Pandemic: COVID-19 and Social Inequality
Bambra, C. L., & Smith, K. E. (2021) · Global perspectives on health geography · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-70179-6_19 · Cited by 7
Self-citationMorrone, A., Buonomini, A. R., Sannella, A., Pimpinelli, F., & Rotulo, A. (2022) · International Journal of Public Health · doi:10.3389/ijph.2022.1604851 · Cited by 7
“The assumption that SARS-Cov2 could be an equaliser between the rich and the poor has been swiftly replaced by the certainty that disparities during a pandemic can only increase [1].”
BackgroundFoley, R., Garrido‐Cumbrera, M., Guzmán, V., Braçe, O., & Hewlett, D. (2022) · Wellbeing Space and Society · doi:10.1016/j.wss.2022.100093 · Cited by 9
“In particular, the ability of the COVID-19 pandemic to devastate poorer and marginalized communities exacerbates existing global geographies of spatial injustice (Bambra et al., 2020).”
BackgroundCOVID-19 Futures: A Framework for Exploring Medium and Long-Term ImpactsPreprint
Bedford, J., Berglöf, E., Buckee, C. O., et al. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3678593 · Cited by 7
Huijts, T., Witvliet, M. G., Balaj, M., & Eikemo, T. A. (2023) · Scandinavian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1177/14034948221143421 · Cited by 7
“[6] Bambra C, Riordan R, Ford J, et al.”
BackgroundImpact of the COVID ‐19 lockdown on the oral health behaviour of young children
Schuller, A. A., Verlinden, D. A., Reijneveld, S. A., & Vermaire, J. H. (2024) · International Journal of Dental Hygiene · doi:10.1111/idh.12808 · Cited by 6
Szinger, D., Berki, T., Drenjančević, I., Samardžić, S., Zelić, M., Sikora, M., Antolović-Požgain, A., Markovics, Á., Farkas, N., Németh, P., et al. (2024) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines12050486 · Cited by 6
“This alarming trend has led to an estimated shortfall of vaccinations for approximately 25 million children globally [10–13].”
BackgroundMatheson, A., Wehipeihana, N., Gray, R. J., Walton, M., Uia, T., Lindberg, K., Shanthakumar, M., Lopez, M. I., Reidy, J., Firestone, R., et al. (2024) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103255 · Cited by 8
The social evolution of COVID-19: pandemics as total social facts
González, J. J. L., & Vilas, E. F. (2024) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2024.1397826 · Cited by 8
Scientific Mapping of Global Research on Health Equity by 2023: A Bibliometric Study
Sarikhani, Y., Kalavani, A., & Najibi, S. M. (2025) · Health Science Reports · doi:10.1002/hsr2.70478 · Cited by 6
“As the frequency of emerging infectious diseases continues to rise, it is crucial to analyze the relationship between socioeconomic inequalities and pandemics, as this understanding is fundamental for future preparedness and alleviating health disparities [45].”
Blomgren, J., & Perhoniemi, R. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2024-098001 · Cited by 6
Hakimi, S., Turfan, E. Ç., Allahqoli, L., Ahmadi, M., Soğukpınar, N., Akyüz, M. D., Mehrabi, E., Rahmani, A., & Alkatout, İ. (2025) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-025-02506-2 · Cited by 6
A comparative review on the epidemiology of influenza, COVID-19 and respiratory syncytial viruses
Shuaib, B. I., Momodu, A., Muhibi, M. A., Dutsinma, U. A., & Yelwa, I. S. (2025) · Discover Medicine · doi:10.1007/s44337-025-00518-z · Cited by 8
“The emergence of novel strains, such as those from avian sources, poses additional risks for pandemic outbreaks, necessitating continuous vigilance and preparedness [47].”
Nkansah‐Dwamena, E., & Fevrier, K. (2022) · Journal of Asian and African Studies · doi:10.1177/00219096221131824 · Cited by 8
“…bare existing ethnic and racial inequalities, as certain minority groups were impacted more severely than other groups in terms of virus exposure and associated health risks, including hospitalization and higher rates of mortality (Bambra et al., 2020; Platt and Warwick, 2020; Yaya et al., 2020).”
BackgroundDores, A. R., Peixoto, M., Carvalho, I. P., Jesus, A. M. C., Moreira, F., & Marques, A. J. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11182580 · Cited by 6
“These remote platforms have been increasingly present in pharmacies [56] and have shown various advantages during the COVID-19 pandemic, namely, with the use of telepharmacy [12].”
BackgroundInfluentialShi, W., Donovan, E. E., Quaack, K. R., Mackert, M., Shaffer, A., Luca, D. M. D., Nolan-Cody, H., & Yang, J. (2023) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2023.2259690 · Cited by 6
“…isolation, fear of infection, bereavement of loved ones, disrupted routines, and financial instability have all been cited as major stressors caused by the pandemic (Bambra et al., 2020; Bell et al., 2021; Le & Nguyen, 2021; Lee et al., 2020; Marroquin et al., 2020; McKnight-Eily et al., 2021).”
Alam, M. F., Wildman, J., & Rahim, H. F. A. (2023) · BMJ Global Health · doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2023-012271 · Cited by 6
Pandemic Racism in Australia: A Systematic Review
Ben, J., & Elias, A. (2024) · Journal of Intercultural Studies · doi:10.1080/07256868.2023.2298325 · Cited by 7
“Moreover, there are concerns regarding the long-term societal implications of COVID-related racism, which could further perpetuate systemic inequalities and hinder social cohesion (Bambra et al. 2020).”
BackgroundO’Shea, J., James, R., Nicholls, D., Downs, J., & Hudson, L. (2024) · Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/13591045241229751 · Cited by 6
“The pandemic has been referred to as a syndemic, where its consequences are determined by one ’ s privilege within society and are unlikely to affect the population homogenously (Bambra et al., 2020; Horton, 2020; Mezzina et al., 2022).”
Burke, N. J., Espinosa, P. R., Corchado, C., et al. (2024) · Critical Public Health · doi:10.1080/09581596.2024.2323715 · Cited by 6
“Racial/ethnic and low-income groups across the state experienced disproportionate health impacts of the pandemic (Bambra et al., 2020; CDC, 2020; Ettner & Grzywacz, 2003; Getachew LZ et al., 2020; Thomas et al., 2021): COVID-19 deaths among California’s Black residents were 33% higher than their…”
Capacity Building in Public Health Emergency Management: A Crucial Pillar for Global Health Security
Garg, R., Bhargava, A., & Singh, S. K. (2024) · NMO journal · doi:10.4103/jnmo.jnmo_10_24 · Cited by 6
Rad, M. R., Abbasi, M., Salimian, E., et al. (2024) · Preventive Medicine Reports · doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2024.102814 · Cited by 6
“The level of education was classified as low ( ≤ 5 years), medium (Gonz ´ alez-Hermosillo et al., 2021; Berger et al., 2021; Langenberg et al., 2006; Clouston et al., 2021; de Lusignan et al., 2020; Bambra et al., 2020; Holuka et al., 2020), and high ( ≥ 13 years).”
BackgroundPalandri, L., Rizzi, C., Vandelli, V., Filippini, T., Ghinoi, A., Carrozzi, G., Girolamo, G. D., Morlini, I., Coratza, P., Giovannetti, E., et al. (2024) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2024.114471 · Cited by 6
Omotayo, A. O., & Ogunniyi, A. I. (2024) · Journal of African Economies · doi:10.1093/jae/ejae015 · Cited by 6
Changela, S., Ashraf, S., Lu, J., Duong, K. E., Henry, S. S., Wang, S. H., & Duong, T. Q. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-83232-7 · Cited by 6
“COVID-19 has disproportionately impacted marginalized communities 63,64 , likely due to limited healthcare access, higher prevalence of underlying health conditions, crowded living conditions, and employment in essential but high-risk roles have compounded the burden of COVID-19 within already…”
What’s in a name? Applying the syndemic perspective to COVID-19 in Ireland
Rálaigh, C. Ó. (2021) · Irish Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1177/07916035211009147 · Cited by 6
“Several recent articles have posited that the syndemic label applies to COVID-19 at an international level (Bambra et al., 2020; Hill et al., 2020; Horton, 2020) and a national level (Katzymarzyk et al., 2020; Shrinivasin et al., 2020).”
BackgroundThe legacy of the COVID ‐19 pandemic and potential impact on persons with wounds
Queen, D., & Harding, K. G. (2021) · International Wound Journal · doi:10.1111/iwj.13657 · Cited by 6
Depression and diabetes: The role of syndemics in the social inequality of disability
Diderichsen, F., Andersen, I., & Mathisen, J. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100211 · Cited by 6
Su, J., Conroy, I., Trevino, A. D., Zheng, Y., & Kuo, S. I. (2022) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-022-01337-4 · Cited by 6
“The COVID-19 pandemic may exacerbate these existing racial/ethnic health disparities [27].”
BackgroundMercado, M., Daza, M., Pacheco, A., et al. (2022) · Global Pediatric Health · doi:10.1177/2333794x221085385 · Cited by 6
Boglione, L., & Dodaro, V. (2022) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s10389-022-01730-2 · Cited by 6
“2021); the role of socioeconomic status (SES) was recently observed as determinant in COVID-19 hospital admissions and mortality (Bambra et al. 2020; Patel et al. 2020; Little et al. 2021) as previously reported for other important respiratory infection (Hawker et al.”
BackgroundVasconcellos-Silva, P. R., & Castiel, L. D. (2022) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/0102-311xpt195421 · Cited by 11
“…to denounce the precariousness of structures that generate injustices among social groups and that have failed to con-trol the pandemic’s expansion, focusing on the relationship between health and gender, age, social class, schooling, and race/ethnicity among many other potential factors 7,8,9,10 .”
BackgroundVeugelers, P. J., Dabravolskaj, J., Khan, M. K. A., Tran, T., Flynn, J., & Maximova, K. (2022) · Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada · doi:10.24095/hpcdp.42.8.04 · Cited by 9
Putting Health at the Heart of Local Planning Through an Integrated Municipal Health Strategy
Freitas, Â., & Santana, P. (2022) · Urban Planning · doi:10.17645/up.v7i4.5829 · Cited by 8
“The Covid‐19 pandemic has shed light on existing social and place‐based health inequities between and within cities bringing health equity to the forefront of public discussion (Bambra et al., 2020).”
BackgroundGlenn, N. M., Yashadhana, A., Jaques, K., Belon, A. P., de Leeuw, E., Nykiforuk, C. I. J., & Harris, P. J. (2022) · International Journal of Health Policy and Management · doi:10.34172/ijhpm.2022.6930 · Cited by 7
Sola, H. D., Failde, I., Estalella, I., & Maquibar, A. (2022) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/hex.13671 · Cited by 6
Schwartz, D. L., Stewart, A. J., Harris, L., Ozdenerol, E., Thomas, F., Johnson, K., Davis, R. L., & Shaban‐Nejad, A. (2022) · Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness · doi:10.1017/dmp.2022.284 · Cited by 6
Matta, M. G., Pulido, L., Herrera-Paz, J. J., et al. (2023) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.01.056 · Cited by 6
“Difficulties in access to care for chronic diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic have been pointed out as ‘‘the other side of the coin” of this global problem, generating an additional burden on the health systems [1,2].”
BackgroundHenry, J. S., Kulesza, E. T., Williams, N. F., et al. (2023) · Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin · doi:10.1177/00343552221146164 · Cited by 6
“One notable outcome of the COVID-19 pandemic is evidenced by an economic recession that pinpointed health inequalities of underserved communities (Bambra et al., 2020) and the “great resignation” a term coined to represent the roughly 33 million Americans who quit their jobs in 2021 in search of…”
Backgroundvan der Kamp, D., Torensma, M., Vader, S. S., Pijpker, R., den Broeder, L., Fransen, M. P., & Wagemakers, A. (2023) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/daac198 · Cited by 7
“In addition, low-SES individuals are at greater risk of adverse effects from the pandemic because they are more likely to have chronic diseases, such as obesity and diabetes, which are known risk factors for becoming more severely ill from the virus (Bambra et al. , 2020; RIVM, 2020).”
InfluentialA diverse public health workforce is more important than ever
Beebeejaun, K., & Littleford, K. (2023) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.p447 · Cited by 6
Raymundo, C. E., Oliveira, M. C., Eleutério, T. D. A., Santos, É. C. D. A., da Silva, M. G., André, S. R., Sousa, A. I., & Medronho, R. D. A. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-31046-4 · Cited by 7
“, 64) weeks, where yc, yd are the number of cases and deaths in municipality i and week t; Ec (1), Ed (2), and El (3) are the expected number of cases, deaths, and SARS case fatalities in municipality i and week j; and Pitn is the reference population, as follows38.”
BackgroundZimmerman, M. E., Hart, L., Medrano, P. G., Piccone, C., Ramirez, D. M., Huggins, L. K. L., Sotres‐Alvarez, D., Fish, L. J., Østbye, T., & Holliday, K. M. (2023) · AJPM Focus · doi:10.1016/j.focus.2023.100095 · Cited by 7
Peng, B., Reeves, K. K. L., Lee, S. W. Y., Chung, T. H. Y., Hui, H. W. L., Leung, A. H. L., & Pang, J. C. Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Pediatrics · doi:10.3389/fped.2023.1181186 · Cited by 7
“Historically, the infection and mortality rates were high among the most disadvantaged communities during the health crisis (25).”
BackgroundPredicting COVID-19 exposure risk perception using machine learning
Bakkeli, N. Z. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-16236-z · Cited by 7
“Studies have found that people with lower socioeconomic status, precarious employment and poor living conditions are more exposed and face larger health challenges than others [1–3].”
BackgroundOyeyemi, D. M., Lin, I., Wang, H., Gan, D. R. Y., Brown, M. J., Freedman, V. A., & Manning, M. A. (2023) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/jgs.18547 · Cited by 6
Husain, F., Akram, S., Al-Kubaisi, H. A. R. A., & Hameed, F. (2023) · Pakistan Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.52131/pjhss.2023.1103.0654 · Cited by 6
“…people of color, as well as vulnerable populations such as refugees, asylum seekers, and those with poor socioeconomic status, have experienced disproportionately high rates of death, which is both tragic and unjust (Bambra, Riordan, Ford, & Matthews, 2020; Van Dorn, Cooney, & Sabin, 2020).”
BackgroundDiamond‐Smith, N., Logan, R. G., Adler, A., et al. (2023) · Birth · doi:10.1111/birt.12800 · Cited by 6
Scott, S., McGowan, V. J., Wildman, J., Bidmead, E., Hartley, J., Mathews, C., James, B., Sullivan, C., Bambra, C. L., & Sowden, S. L. (2024) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-023-10435-5 · Cited by 7
“As Bambra et al. [5] have argued, this is best described as a ‘syndemic’ relationship, where existing, co-occurring socio-economic inequalities interact with - and exacerbate - case rates, symptom severity, morbidity and mortality outcomes from the pandemic.”
BackgroundSelf-citationCan evidence drive health equity in the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond?
Bell, K., White, S., Diaz, A., Bahria, P., Sima, F., Al‐Delaimy, W. K., dosReis, S., Hassan, O., Drabarek, D., Nisha, M. K., et al. (2024) · Journal of Public Health Policy · doi:10.1057/s41271-023-00452-3 · Cited by 6
“Several studies have identified the COVID-19 pandemic as a global challenge that has increased health inequities [2–6].”
BackgroundKatz, C., Jacobson, M., Filho, S. R. P., Goldfarb, D., Liu, J., Zibetti, M. R., Varela, N., Attrash-Najjar, A., Bérubé, A., Collin‐Vézina, D., et al. (2024) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2024.106659 · Cited by 6
Baumgärtel, M., & Ganty, S. (2024) · International Journal of Law in Context · doi:10.1017/s174455232300037x · Cited by 6
“…been well-documented that migrants in Europe, especially undocumented migrants, have been particularly impacted by COVID-19, as they are among the ‘ at risk ’ population due to their typically precarious health and living conditions (Bambra et al. , 2020, pp. 1 – 5; Buheji et al. , 2020, p. 220).”
BackgroundIdrovo, Á. J., Moreno‐Montoya, J., & Pinzón-Flórez, C. E. (2020) · Biomédica · doi:10.7705/biomedica.5829 · Cited by 6
The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pan-Syndemic—Will We Ever Learn?
Padmanabhan, S. (2020) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa1797 · Cited by 6
“It is well known that people living in disadvantaged neighborhoods and minority ethnic groups have unequal exposure to social determinants of health including housing, education, work and job security and access to health-care all of which compound to cause a higher chronic disease burden of hypertension, diabetes, he…”
BackgroundBlanco, L. F., & Sacramento, J. J. (2021) · Horizontes Antropológicos · doi:10.1590/s0104-71832021000100010 · Cited by 6
Ridder, D. D., Loizeau, A., Sandoval, J. L., Ehrler, F., Perrier, M., Ritch, A., Violot, G., Santolini, M., Tzovaras, B. G., Stringhini, S., et al. (2021) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/30444 · Cited by 7
“Since the start of the pandemic, a growing body of literature has highlighted the existence of health inequalities in COVID-19 infection and mortality [57-59].”
BackgroundCOVID-19 Symptoms app analysis to foresee healthcare impacts: Evidence from Northern Ireland
Sousa, J., Barata, J., van Woerden, H. C., & Kee, F. (2021) · Applied Soft Computing · doi:10.1016/j.asoc.2021.108324 · Cited by 6
“As multiple outbreaks and waves reveal, this ‘‘ syndetic pandemic ’’ [18] is highly dynamic and challenging to contain.”
InfluentialFrom struggle to opportunity: Reimagining medical education in a pandemic era
Burm, S., Luong, V., LaDonna, K. A., Bogie, B. J. M., Cowley, L., Klasen, J. M., & MacLeod, A. (2022) · Perspectives on Medical Education · doi:10.1007/s40037-022-00702-2 · Cited by 6
Crisis Leadership: Lessons Learned From the COVID Pandemic
Glotzbecker, M. P. (2022) · Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics · doi:10.1097/bpo.0000000000002068 · Cited by 6
Yang, T., Deng, W., Liu, Y., & Deng, J. (2022) · Annals of Medicine · doi:10.1080/07853890.2022.2060522 · Cited by 6
Belita, E., Neil‐Sztramko, S., Miller, A., et al. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-13663-2 · Cited by 6
Yoon, M., Jeong, H., Bae, B., et al. (2022) · 보건교육·건강증진학회지 · doi:10.14367/kjhep.2022.39.2.15 · Cited by 6
A breach in the social contract: Limited participation and limited evidence in COVID‐19 responses
Rangel, J. C., Crath, R., & Renade, S. (2022) · Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/jep.13775 · Cited by 5
Beaujoin, C., Gautier, L., Gagnon‐Dufresne, M., et al. (2023) · Canadian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.17269/s41997-023-00759-4 · Cited by 6
Green Space and the Risk of Non-communicable Diseases: A Study of Urban Residents in Dhaka City
Debnath, S., & Das, P. K. (2023) · European Journal of Development Studies · doi:10.24018/ejdevelop.2023.3.6.313 · Cited by 7
“Green space is defined as any natural or semi-natural area that is partially or completely covered by vegetation, and it includes parks, gardens, and other open spaces (Bambra et al. , 2020).”
BackgroundMathematical model optimized for prediction and health care planning for COVID-19
Garrido, J. M., Martínez‐Rodríguez, D., Rodríguez‐Serrano, F., Pérez-Villares, J. M., Ferreiro-Marzal, A., Jiménez‐Quintana, M. D. M., & Villanueva, R. J. (2022) · Medicina Intensiva (English Edition) · doi:10.1016/j.medine.2022.02.020 · Cited by 6
McNamara, C. L., Labonté, R., Schram, A., & Townsend, B. (2021) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2020-215105 · Cited by 6
Muscat, D. M., Ayre, J., Mac, O. A., et al. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.10.19.21265230 · Cited by 6
Mitchell, K. R., Shimonovich, M., Pérez, R. B., et al. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3862586 · Cited by 6
Public Policies, “One Health,” and Global Inequalities Under the COVID-19 Lens
Tsani, S., Riza, E., Tsiamagka, P., & Nassi, M. (2021) · Encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71060-0_130-1 · Cited by 6
On social health: Conceptualization, Correlates and PatterningPreprint
Doyle, D. M., & Link, B. G. (2022) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/m2ypw · Cited by 6
Crellin, N. E., Herlitz, L., Sidhu, M. S., Ellins, J., Georghiou, T., Litchfield, I. J., Massou, E., Ng, P. L., Sherlaw‐Johnson, C., Tomini, S. M., et al. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.02.21.22270793 · Cited by 7
The multidimensional construct of precarious work, the future of work, and workers' health.
Fernandes, R. D. C. P. (2023) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/0102-311xpt100522 · Cited by 13
“During the COVID-19 pandemic, existing inequalities were enhanced, especially in periphery countries and in poor areas of core countries, notably in the world of work, with the post-pandemic period marked by precarious work 1,2,3 .”
BackgroundBosáková, L., Rosičová, K., & Bobáková, D. F. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-18645-0 · Cited by 5
“…minorities encompassing those in vulnerable situations, including Roma, due to excess poverty, unemployment and social exclusion leading to loss of income, food scarcity, housing insecurity, but also to reduced ability to access already due to pandemic overloaded health services [28, 32, 34].”
BackgroundSato, A., Tanaka, H., Tabuchi, T., & Katanoda, K. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-20355-6 · Cited by 5
“The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted preexisting health inequalities in society, and susceptibility to infection differs based on socioeconomic factors, such as race, ethnicity, sex, education, and occupation [6].”
BackgroundStructural inequalities exacerbate infection disparities
Sajjadi, S., Simin, P. T., Shadmangohar, M., Taraktaş, B., Bayram, U., Ruiz-Blondet, M. V., & Karimi, F. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-91008-w · Cited by 6
Citizenship in times of crisis: biosocial state–citizen relations during COVID-19 in Austria
Radhuber, I. M., Haddad, C., Kieslich, K., Paul, K. T., Prainsack, B., El-Sayed, S., Schlögl, L., Spahl, W., & Weiss, E. (2023) · BioSocieties · doi:10.1057/s41292-023-00304-z · Cited by 5
“This is congruent with studies showing that different factors and dynamics of disadvantage and deprivation mutually enhance each other (e.g. Bambra et al. 2020; Horton 2020).”
ResultThe Food Systems, One Health, and Resilience (FOR) Approach—Led by the FOR-Runners
Nitzan, D., Andreuzza, B. N., & Chattopadhyay, D. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su151813889 · Cited by 6
Paudel, K. P., Samuel, R., Jha, R., et al. (2023) · Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses · doi:10.1111/irv.13234 · Cited by 5
“19,20 This finding highlights the need for further research to understand the regional role of Nepal within Southeast Asia, where income may be closely linked to mobility and migration within Nepal and abroad.”
BackgroundMaya, R. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su16083501 · Cited by 5
“As population density and poverty are linked to increased severity of disease [8,16–18, 67”
BackgroundSaqib, K., Goel, V., Dubin, J. A., VanderDoes, J., & Butt, Z. A. (2024) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2024.07.008 · Cited by 6
Barry, K., Fernández-García, S., Khashaba, A., Ruiz‐Calvo, G., Redín, M. R., Mahmoud, G., Yap, M., King, Y., Zhou, D., Mamey, M., et al. (2025) · BMJ Global Health · doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2024-015815 · Cited by 5
“The findings of individual studies are provided in online supplemental appendices 5 and 6.”
Barrera, E. L., Miljkovic, K., Barnor, K., & Miljković, D. (2025) · Health Policy · doi:10.1016/j.healthpol.2025.105345 · Cited by 5
Gardiner, S.-A. L., & Martin, P. (2021) · Australian Health Review · doi:10.1071/ah21230 · Cited by 5
A Year of COVID-19 Pandemic Roller-Coaster: The Malta Experience, Lessons Learnt, and the Future
Cuschieri, S., Grech, S., & Grech, V. (2022) · Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness · doi:10.1017/dmp.2022.100 · Cited by 5
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the timing of dental care in elderly peruvians
Garcés‐Elías, M. C., León-Manco, R. A., Castillo-López, C. E. D., et al. (2022) · Acta odontológica latinoamericana/Acta odontológica latinoamericana · doi:10.54589/aol.35/1/16 · Cited by 5
Human and social rights and occupational therapy: the need for an intersectional perspective
Cobo, P. B., Fransen-Jaïbi, H., González, M., Henny, E., Malfitano, A. P. S., & Pollard, N. (2022) · Cadernos Brasileiros de Terapia Ocupacional · doi:10.1590/2526-8910.ctoed302022032 · Cited by 8
The Role of Racial Match Between Students and Teachers in School-Based Consultation
Clinkscales, A., Barrett, C. A., & Spear, S. E. (2022) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/2372966x.2022.2087477 · Cited by 7
“…the expansion of the Black Lives Matter movement which began in 2014 (Taylor, 2016 ), healthcare disparities highlighted by the COVID-19 pandemic (Bambra et al., 2020 ), and the regulation of federal policies that provide additional funding to schools in order to close the achievement gap…”
BackgroundNavarro, A., Esteve‐Matalí, L., Llorens, C., Salas‐Nicás, S., & Lluís, S. M. I. (2022) · Anuario IET de Trabajo y Relaciones Laborales · doi:10.5565/rev/aiet.106 · Cited by 8
Proposing a New Conceptual Syndemic Framework for COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy: A Narrative Review
AlShurman, B. A., & Butt, Z. A. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20021561 · Cited by 7
“The outcomes were mainly linked to non-communicable diseases (such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease) [10,28,29], infectious diseases (such as tuberculosis, malaria, and HIV) [29–32], nutrition insecurity [33,34], mental health inequities [35], climate change, gender-based violence [36], and racism [35,37,38].”
BackgroundBaş, K., & Sur, H. (2023) · Eskişehir Türk Dünyası Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkezi Halk Sağlığı Dergisi · doi:10.35232/estudamhsd.1135965 · Cited by 5
Insights from COVID-19: Reflecting on the Promotion of Long-Term Health Policies in China
Qi, W., Chen, B., & Zhu, J. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20042889 · Cited by 5
“A post-COVID-19 global recession seems likely, which could worsen health equity, so a long-term health policy response is essential so that the COVID-19 epidemic does not exacerbate health inequalities for future generations [6].”
BackgroundBota, A. B., Bettinger, J. A., Sarfo-Mensah, S., Lopez, J. R., Smith, D., Atkinson, K. M., Bell, C., Marty, K. D., Serhan, M., Zhu, D. T., et al. (2023) · JMIR Public Health and Surveillance · doi:10.2196/39700 · Cited by 5
“The COVID-19 pandemic and influenza outbreaks disproportionally harm individuals from communities that may be less accessible [6].”
Fabrin, C., Boing, A. C., Garcia, L. P., & Boing, A. F. (2023) · Revista Brasileira de Epidemiologia · doi:10.1590/1980-549720230015 · Cited by 5
“The severity of the pandemic originates from and also exacerbates social inequalities 5 .”
BackgroundWorry About COVID-19 and Other Extreme Events Amongst Educators in Australia
Zant, T. V. D., & Dix, K. (2023) · Australian Journal of Education · doi:10.1177/00049441231168447 · Cited by 7
“As socio-economic advantage is associated with broad health outcomes, it is unsurprising that socio-economic disadvantage has been found to be associated with greater risk of acquiring and dying from COVID-19 (Bambra et al., 2020; Harris, 2020).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Bambra, C., Riordan, R., Ford, J., & Matthews, F.
- Affiliations
- Newcastle University (GB)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Bambra, Clare
- Venue
- Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2020-06-13
- Volume
- 74
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 964-968
- ISSN
- 0141-7681 (ISSN-L)
- 0143-005X
- 1470-2738
- PMC
- PMC7298201
- OpenAlex
- W3034285292
- Cited by
- 2,118
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 216 · 2025: 196 · 2024: 298 · 2023: 364 · 2022: 508 · 2021: 454 · 2020: 80
- FWCI
- 174.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Repository@Hull (Worktribe) (University of Hull) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Newcastle University ePrints (Newcastle Univesity)
- Funders
- National Institute for Health Research (NIHR200173)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Public Health and Social Inequalities
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Healthcare Systems and Challenges
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, health disparities, syndemic, social determinants of health, socioeconomic disparities, ethnic inequality, regional disparities, economic impact of lockdown, public health policy
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Humans, Pneumonia, Viral, Socioeconomic Factors, Coronavirus Infections, Health Status Disparities, Healthcare Disparities, Pandemics, Social Determinants of Health
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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