The DOI matches its Crossref record; 51 of the 51 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 17 of the 50 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities
Open accessAbstract
This essay examines the implications of the COVID-19 pandemic for health inequalities. It outlines historical and contemporary evidence of inequalities in pandemics—drawing on international research into the Spanish influenza pandemic of 1918, the H1N1 outbreak of 2009 and the emerging international estimates of socio-economic, ethnic and geographical inequalities in COVID-19 infection and mortality rates. It then examines how these inequalities in COVID-19 are related to existing inequalities in chronic diseases and the social determinants of health, arguing that we are experiencing a syndemic pandemic . It then explores the potential consequences for health inequalities of the lockdown measures implemented internationally as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on the likely unequal impacts of the economic crisis. The essay concludes by reflecting on the longer-term public health policy responses needed to ensure that the COVID-19 pandemic does not increase health inequalities for future generations.
Overview
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Verification
Claims the paper makes
17 of 50 cited sources checked · 6 supported · 1 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“Similarly, access to healthcare is lower in disadvantaged and marginalised communities-even in universal healthcare systems.32”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Disputedcites [32] Todd A , Copeland A , Kasim A , et al. Access all areas? An area-level analysis of the relationship between community pharmacy and primary care distribution, urbanity and social deprivation in England. BMJ Open 2015;5:e007328. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2014-007328 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Conclusions (page unavailable) report the opposite pattern for the access this study measured: a higher proportion of people in England’s most deprived areas live within a 20-minute walk of a GP premises. The Discussion’s principal findings likewise say GP-premises accessibility was highest in the most deprived areas. The paper measures proximity to GP premises and pharmacies, not healthcare access in general or access among all marginalised communities. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Disputed
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“and across Sweden, there were inequalities in mortality between the highest and lowest occupational classes -particularly among men.7”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [7] source
The Discussion reports social-class differences in excess mortality during the July 1918–June 1919 pandemic and says they were larger among men than women. The Regression results likewise identify low-skilled men as having the highest excess mortality and farmers the lowest; the paper does not claim a uniform class gradient. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In contrast, countries with smaller pre-existing social and economic inequalities, such as New Zealand, did not experience any socio-economic inequalities in mortality.8 9”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [8] Rice G , Bryder L . Black november: the 1918 influenza pandemic in New Zealand . Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 2005.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites [9] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (Univariate results, page unavailable) show no significant trend in mortality risk by occupational class among New Zealand military personnel; the paper also reports no significant occupational-class association in its fully adjusted model. But it does not establish that New Zealand had smaller pre-existing social and economic inequalities or that the country experienced no socioeconomic inequalities in pandemic mortality. The study was restricted to New Zealand military personnel in the Northern Hemisphere, so the claim generalizes beyond its population. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Not matched
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Another study found positive associations between people with financial issues (eg, financial barriers to healthcare access) and influenza-like illnesses during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic in the USA.15”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [15] source
The COMMENT section (page not provided) reports that respondents with financial barriers to healthcare were more likely to report influenza-like illness, even after adjustment for age, medical conditions, and employment. This directly supports the cited association in the US pandemic study. (LLM, conf=0.94)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“For example, globally, Mexico experienced a higher mortality rate than that in higher-income countries.12”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [12] source
The Discussion states that Mexico had higher 2009 pandemic-related mortality rates than the United States, Europe, or Australia. It also compares an estimated 11.1 deaths per 100,000 in Mexico with 4 per 100,000 in the United States. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Various studies on cyclical winter influenza in North America have also found associations between mortality, morbidity and symptom severity and socio-economic status among adults and children.16 17”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [16] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion reports that influenza-related hospitalizations increased as neighborhood socioeconomic status decreased among adults in New Haven County across four seasons. The Introduction also reports an earlier Connecticut finding for children. These passages support an association with hospitalization, but not the claimed associations with mortality or symptom severity across North America. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [17] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Similarly, old-age pensions in the UK were protected from austerity cuts after the GFC and research has suggested that this prevented health inequalities increasing amongst the older population.45”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [45] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Background and Discussion say UK pensioners were largely protected from austerity and suggest that maintaining these benefits may explain why the mental-health gap did not widen in the study’s older cohort. The Conclusion limits that finding to an 18-month study of the most and least deprived neighbourhoods of Stockton-on-Tees; it does not establish that pension protection prevented health inequalities from increasing among the UK’s older population generally. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Housing is also an important factor in driving health inequalities.34”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [34] source
The Introduction describes housing and neighbourhood conditions as an upstream determinant that plays a role in health inequalities. The Abstract also calls them important social determinants of health. Together, these passages support the citing sentence's broad claim. (LLM, conf=0.93)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Decades of research into the psychosocial determinants of health have found that the chronic stress of material and psychological deprivation is associated with immunosuppression.36”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [36] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report that chronic stressors, including unemployment and caregiving, were associated with reduced function on almost all immune measures examined. The Discussion describes the most chronic stressors as associated with broad immunosuppression. The paper does not establish material and psychological deprivation as distinct categories of stressor, so that specificity goes beyond its findings. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Likewise, there is increasing evidence that living in disadvantaged environments may produce a sense of powerlessness and collective threat among residents, leading to chronic stressors that, in time, damage health.39”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [39] source
Section 3.3 (Meso/community level theories; page not provided) states that disadvantaged living environments may produce collective threat and powerlessness, which act as chronic stressors damaging health over time. This directly supports the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.95)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Supported
- It may state two separate claims as one. 21
- Probably not a substantial claim. 2
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Housing also impacts health inequalities materially through costs (eg, as a result of high rents) and psychosocially through insecurity (eg, short-term leases).34”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [34] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (page unavailable) says housing tenure may affect health psychosocially: home ownership may provide greater security than renting, while debt may cause anxiety. It does not identify high rents as a material pathway or short-term leases as the source of insecurity, and it qualifies the tenure effect rather than asserting it outright. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, exposure to poor quality housing is associated with certain health outcomes, for example, damp housing can lead to respiratory diseases such as asthma while overcrowding can result in higher infection rates and increased risk of injury from household accidents.34”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [34] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction says cold and damp housing may cause or exacerbate respiratory conditions, and that some housing-related hazards can cause injuries. The Results identify overcrowding as a housing-risk category, but the passages do not link it specifically to higher infection rates or household-accident injuries. The paper also does not specifically identify asthma as an outcome of damp housing. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“For example, inequalities in premature mortality and infant mortality by income and ethnicity in the USA decreased during the period of welfare expansion in the USA ('war on poverty' era 1966 to 1980), but they increased again during the Reagan-Bush period (1980-2002) when welfare services and healthcare coverage were cut.46”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [46] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The ‘Post-treatment reduction of clinical risk’ and ‘Duration of Follow-Up’ sections discuss antimalarial treatment trials, not US mortality inequalities. Searches for premature and infant mortality by income and ethnicity, the war on poverty, and the Reagan–Bush period found no passage addressing the claimed trends. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“COVID-19 has laid bare our longstanding social, economic and political inequalities -even before the COVID-19 pandemic, life expectancy amongst the poorest groups was already declining in the UK and the USA and health inequalities in some European countries have been increasing over the last decade.50”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > CONCLUSION
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [50] Forster T , Kentikelenis A , Bambra C . Health inequalities in Europe: setting the stage for progressive policy action, Foundation for European Progressive Studies and the Think Tank for Action on Social Change (TASC). 2018. Available https://www.feps-europe.eu/component/attachments/attachments.html?task=attachment&id=168 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The “Healthier but Still Unequal” section (page not provided) reports widening life-expectancy gaps in Denmark and in England between 2010 and 2015, supporting the claim that health inequalities increased in some European countries before COVID-19. It does not establish that life expectancy itself declined among the poorest groups in the UK or USA; the search for that claim found no such passage. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The international literature demonstrates that there were inequalities in prevalence and mortality rates: between high-income and low-income countries, more and less affluent neighbourhoods, higher and lower socio-economic groups, and urban and rural areas.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These health impacts were not shared equally though-areas of the UK with higher unemployment rates had greater increases in suicide rates and inequalities in mental health increased with people living in the most deprived areas experiencing the largest increases in psychiatric morbidity and self-harm.43”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The COVID-19 pandemic is occurring against a backdrop of social and economic inequalities in existing non-communicable diseases (NCDs) as well as inequalities in the social determinants of health.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“With regard to ethnic inequalities in COVID-19, data from England and Wales have found that people who are black, Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) accounted for 34.5% of 4873 critically ill COVID-19 patients (in the period ending April 16, 2020) and much higher than the 11.5% seen for viral pneumonia between 2017 and 2019.20”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [20] Intensive Care National Audit and Research Centre . Report on COVID-19 in critical care 17 April 2020 . London: Intensive Care National Audit and Research Centre, 2020.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: 14% of the population of England and Wales are from BAME backgrounds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For example, in Chicago (in the period ending April 17, 2020), 59.2% of COVID-19 deaths were among black residents and the COVID-19 mortality rate for black Chicagoans was 34.8 per 100 000 population compared to 8.2 per 100 000 population among white residents.21”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 1. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF INEQUALITIES IN PANDEMICS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [21] Chicago Department of Public Health . COVID-19 death characteristics for Chicago residents. 2020. Available https://www.chicago.gov/city/en/sites/covid-19/home/latest-data.html (accessed 18 Apr 2020).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, lower-paid workers (where BAME groups are disproportionately represented)-particularly in the service sector (eg, food, cleaning or delivery services)-are much more likely to be designated as key workers and thereby are still required to go to work and rely on public transport for doing so.All these increase their exposure to the virus.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Lower socio-economic groups have a higher exposure to poor quality or unaffordable, insecure housing and therefore have a higher rate of negative health consequences.35”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“People with existing chronic conditions (eg, cancer or cardiovascular disease (CVD)) are less likely to receive treatment and diagnosis as health services are overwhelmed by dealing with the pandemic.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Just like the 1918 influenza pandemic (which had severe impacts on economic performance and increased poverty rates), the COVID-19 crisis will have huge economic, social and-ultimately-health consequences.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minority ethnic groups, people living in areas of higher socioeconomic deprivation, those in poverty and other marginalised groups (such as homeless people, prisoners and street-based sex workers) generally have a greater number of coexisting NCDs, which are more severe and experienced at at a younger age.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, deprived neighbourhoods are more likely to contain houses of multiple occupation and smaller houses with a lack of outside space, as well as have higher population densities (particularly in deprived urban areas) and lower access to communal green space.27”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [27] Bambra C . Health divides: where you live can kill you . Bristol: Policy Press, 2016.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Previous research has found that sudden economic shocks (like the collapse of communism in the early 1990s and the global financial crisis (GFC) of 2008 41 ) lead to increases in morbidity, mental ill health, suicide and death from alcohol and substance use.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [41] Stuckler D , Basu S . The body economic. why austerity kills . London: Thomas Allen, 2013.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“So, the health consequences of the COVID-19 economic crisis are likely to be similarly unequally distributed-exacerbating heath inequalities.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The prevalence and severity of the COVID-19 pandemic is magnified because of the pre-existing epidemics of chronic disease-which are themselves socially patterned and associated with the social determinants of health.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Similarly, the Gypsy/Roma community-one of the most marginalised minority groups in Europe-has a smoking rate that is two to three times the European average and increased rates of respiratory diseases (such as COPD) and other COVID-19 risk factors.29”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [29] European commission . Roma health report: health status of the Roma population in the member states of the European union . Brussels: European Commission, 2014.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“These will likely increase COVID-19 transmission rates-as was the case with H1N1 where strong associations were found with urbanity.13”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These state-imposed restrictionsusually requiring the government to take on emergency powershave been implemented to varying levels of severity, but all have in common a significant increase in social isolation and confinement within the home and immediate neighbourhood.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 3. THE GREAT LOCKDOWN: THE COVID-19 ECONOMIC CRISIS AND HEALTH INEQUALITIES
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This reduced access to healthcare-before and during the outbreak -contributes to inequalities in chronic disease and is also likely to lead to worse outcomes from COVID-19 in more disadvantaged areas and marginalised communities.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > PART 2. THE SYNDEMIC OF COVID-19, CHRONIC DISEASE AND THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It seems likely that there will be a post-COVID-19 global economic slumpwhich could make the health equity situation even worse, particularly if health-damaging policies of austerity are implemented again.”
§ The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities > CONCLUSION
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
14% of the population of England and Wales are from BAME backgrounds.
“Only 14% of the population of England and Wales are from BAME backgrounds.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most countries failed to pursue traditional public health surveillance measures and were forced to implement lockdowns.
“While traditional public health surveillance measures of contact tracing and individual quarantine were successfully pursued by some countries (most notably by South Korea and Germany) as a way of tackling the virus in the early stages, most other countries failed to do so, and governments worldwide were eventually forced to implement mass quarantine measures -in the form of lockdowns.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“What we do know with more certainty is that times of crisis or periods of austerity are likely to disadvantage entire cohorts/generations [60], but that this will amplify prior forms of exclusion and marginalisation [3].”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Conclusion attributes 1918 inequalities to COVID-19
MinorThe conclusion says inequalities both then and now arose through COVID-19. Earlier, the paper identifies the historical inequalities as occurring during the 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic, not the COVID-19 pandemic.
“Both then and now, these inequalities have emerged through the syndemic nature of COVID-19-as it interacts with and exacerbates existing social inequalities in chronic disease and the social determinants of health.”
“More recent studies have confirmed Sydenstricker's early findings: there were significant inequalities in the 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic.”
Citations
Cites
Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health
Marmot, M. G., Friel, S., Bell, R., Houweling, T. A. J., & Taylor, S. A. J. (2008) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(08)61690-6 · Cited by 8,473
Psychological stress and the human immune system: a meta-analytic study of 30 Years of inquiry
Segerstrom, S. C., & Miller, G. E. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.601 · Cited by 3,334 · cited 1×
“Decades of research into the psychosocial determinants of health have found that the chronic stresses of material and psychological deprivation is associated with immunosuppression [36].”
BackgroundAlmond, D. (2006) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/507154 · Cited by 1,190 · cited 1×
“There is also some evidence from the USA that the pandemic had long term impacts on child health and development [11].”
BackgroundMurray, C. J., Lopez, A. D., Chin, B., Feehan, D., & Hill, K. H. (2006) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(06)69895-4 · Cited by 605 · cited 4×
“For example, India had a mortality rate 40 times higher than Denmark and the mortality rate was 20 times higher in some South American countries than in Europe.4 In Norway, mortality rates were highest among the working-class districts of Oslo5; in the USA, they were highest among the unemployed and the urban poor in…”
BackgroundInfluentialGibson, M., Petticrew, M., Bambra, C., Sowden, A. J., Wright, K. E., & Whitehead, M. (2011) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.09.011 · Cited by 539 · cited 2×
“Housing is also an important factor in driving health inequalities [34].”
BackgroundSelf-citationIntroduction to Syndemics: A Critical Systems Approach to Public and Community Health
Singer, M. C. (2009) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 537
(1996) · Free inquiry in creative sociology · Cited by 516
Chen, J. T., & Krieger, N. R. (2020) · Journal of Public Health Management and Practice · doi:10.1097/phh.0000000000001263 · Cited by 487
Clinical Features Predicting Mortality Risk in Patients With Viral Pneumonia: The MuLBSTA Score
Guo, L., Wei, D., Zhang, X., Wu, Y., Li, Q. Y., Zhou, M., & Qu, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2019.02752 · Cited by 412
Gkiouleka, A., Huijts, T., Beckfield, J., & Bambra, C. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.01.025 · Cited by 319
Self-citation
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- Lacobucci G . GPs in deprived areas face severest pressures. BMJ . 2019;365:l2104.
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Items 501–600 of 1,982
dos Santos, I. L., Zimmermann, I. R., Donalísio, M. R., Santimaria, M. R., Sanchez, M. N., de Carvalho, J. L. B., & Borim, F. S. A. (2022) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/0102-311xpt261921 · Cited by 15
Liprandi, Á. S., Zaidel, E. J., López-Santi, R., Araujo, J. J., González, M. A. B., Busso, J. M., Cabral, L., Camilletti, J., Erriest, J., Flores, R., et al. (2021) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines9020123 · Cited by 17
Qin, M., Evandrou, M., Falkingham, J., & Vlachantoni, A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19116700 · Cited by 14
Why is health improvement policy so difficult to secure?
Cairney, P., Denny, E. S., & Boswell, J. (2022) · Open Research Europe · doi:10.12688/openreseurope.14841.2 · Cited by 14
The impact of deprivation on patients awaiting planned care
Kulkarni, K., Shah, R., Mangwani, J., & Dias, J. J. (2022) · Bone & Joint Open · doi:10.1302/2633-1462.310.bjo-2022-0037.r1 · Cited by 14
Impact of work arrangements during the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health in France
Hecker, I., Aarbaoui, T. E., Wallez, S., Andersen, A. J., Ayuso‐Mateos, J. L., Bryant, R. A., Corrao, G., McDaid, D., Mediavilla, R., Mittendorfer‐Rutz, E., et al. (2022) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2022.101285 · Cited by 13
“…COVID-19, individuals that are already socially and economically vulnerable suffer more severely from the negative health effects (i.e. higher rates of infection and mortality) of the crisis than the rest of the population, aggravating health inequalities (Bambra, Riordan, Ford, & Matthews, 2020).”
Impact of COVID-19 on health care and quality of life in women with breast cancer
Myers, C., Bennett, K., Kelly, C. M., Walshe, J. M., O’Sullivan, N., Quinn, M., Lyons, T., Weadick, C. S., & Cahir, C. (2023) · JNCI Cancer Spectrum · doi:10.1093/jncics/pkad033 · Cited by 14
“Evidence is emerging of the potential health inequalities pertaining to COVID-19 (13).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe COVID-19 pandemic and its impacts on diet quality and food prices in sub-Saharan Africa
Ismail, A., Madzorera, I., Apraku, E. A., Tinkasimile, A. K., Dasmane, D., Zabré, P., Millogo, O., Assefa, N., Chukwu, A. U., Workneh, F., et al. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0279610 · Cited by 14
“The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) continues to affect the social, economic and health status of individuals and communities globally and has exposed significant inequalities by income, socio-demographic factors and geographic location [1].”
BackgroundSocioeconomic inequalities in COVID-19 incidence during the first six waves in Barcelona
Martínez‐Beneito, M. A., Marí-Dell’Olmo, M., Sánchez-Valdivia, N., Rodríguez‐Sanz, M., Pérez, G., Pasarín, M. I., Rius, C., Artazcoz, L., Prieto, R., Pérez, K., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyad105 · Cited by 14
Teck, J. T. W., Butner, J. L., & Baldacchino, A. (2023) · Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare · doi:10.1177/1357633x231195607 · Cited by 15
“impacted people from Black and ethnic minority groups, geographically deprived and/or remote regions, poorer socioeconomic backgrounds, and other marginalized social groups.(9,10) PWOUD, through their intersecting experiences of social exclusion, discrimination, stigma, and homelessness, are over-represented among the…”
Dodd-Reynolds, C. J., Griffin, N., Kyle, P., Scott, S., Fairbrother, H., Holding, E., Crowder, M., Woodrow, N., & Summerbell, C. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-18078-9 · Cited by 19
“…(hereafter referred to as young people) therefore present a critical but wide-ranging group with whom we must seek to better understand PA inequalities, particularly in the context of widening place-based inequality and deprivation and the syndemic ’shock’ of the COVID-19 pandemic [19, 20].”
BackgroundXames, M. D., & Topcu, T. G. (2025) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3559502 · Cited by 16
“Pandemics and other public health crises disproportionately impact economically disadvantaged populations [139], [140], placing them at greater risk due to factors like limited access to healthcare, crowded living conditions, and fewer resources to cope with disruptions in employment and services…”
Shafer, P. R., Anderson, D. M., Whitaker, R., et al. (2021) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2021.00377 · Cited by 14
Strizek, J., Uhl, A., Schaub, M. P., & Malischnig, D. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182413080 · Cited by 14
“This result is important and requires further observation with regard to recent concerns that in the course of the COVID-19 pandemic, health disparities in general, as well as health problems in relation to problems due to substance use in particular, may have grown [46,47].”
BackgroundGhimire, S., Shrestha, A., Yadav, U. N., et al. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-056342 · Cited by 14
“Building” the Twenty-First Century Child and Adolescent Psychiatrist
Shaligram, D., Bernstein, B., DeJong, S. M., Guerrero, A. P. S., Hunt, J., Jadhav, M., Ong, S. H., Robertson, P., Şeker, A., & Skokauskas, N. (2022) · Academic Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40596-022-01594-4 · Cited by 14
“The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated pre-existing mental health burden and healthcare disparities [2].”
BackgroundKilian, C., Neufeld, M., Manthey, J., Alavidze, S., Bobrova, A., Baron‐Epel, O., Berisha, M., Bilici, R., Davletov, K., Isajeva, L., et al. (2022) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckac011 · Cited by 14
Zhang, H., Mansoursadeghi-Gilan, T., Hussain, S., Veldhuizen, S., Foll, B. L., Selby, P. L., & Zawertailo, L. A. (2022) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109312 · Cited by 14
Welsh, C. E., Albani, V., Matthews, F. E., & Bambra, C. L. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-058658 · Cited by 15
Self-citationLuo, Y., Li, Q., Jeong, H., & Cheatham, L. P. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-14486-x · Cited by 16
“Research has demonstrated the ways in which social determinants have exacerbated health disparities during the COVID-19 pandemic [14].”
BackgroundScott, S., McGowan, V. J., Bradley, A., & Visram, S. (2023) · SSM - Qualitative Research in Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmqr.2023.100239 · Cited by 14
Carballada, Ã. M., & Balsa‐Barreiro, J. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-273514/v1 · Cited by 14
“a substantial increase in social inequalities at all levels [2,3].”
BackgroundThe Role of a Resilient Information Infrastructure in COVID-19 Vaccine Uptake in Ontario
Duchen, R., Iskander, C., Chung, H., Paterson, J., Kwong, J. C., Bronskill, S. E., Rosella, L. C., & Guttmann, A. (2021) · Healthcare Quarterly · doi:10.12927/hcq.2021.26553 · Cited by 15
Wachtler, B., Müters, S., Michalski, N., et al. (2021) · BMC Research Notes · doi:10.1186/s13104-021-05784-5 · Cited by 13
“Similar inequalities may emerge in the communicable coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), as the risk for an infection with the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) may be increased among people in poorer living and working conditions.”
BackgroundInfluentialSocial determinants of health associated with severity and mortality in patients with COVID-19
Núñez‐Cortés, R., Ortega-Palavecinos, M., Soto-Carmona, C., Torres-Gangas, P., Concha-Rivero, M. P., & Torres‐Castro, R. (2021) · Gaceta Médica de México · doi:10.24875/gmm.m21000556 · Cited by 13
Guo, C., Hu, X., Yuan, D., Zeng, Y., & Yang, P. (2022) · Globalization and Health · doi:10.1186/s12992-022-00872-y · Cited by 13
“The pandemic continues to challenge people’s physical and mental health with highly transmissible SARS-CoV-2 variants [2], resulting in increasing health disparities [3].”
BackgroundO’Donnell, C. A., Macdonald, S., Browne, S. E., Albanese, A., Blane, D., Ibbotson, T. R., Laidlaw, L., Heaney, D., & Lowe, D. J. (2022) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/hex.13593 · Cited by 13
He, Y., Jørgensen, A., Sun, Q., Corcoran, A., & Alfaro-Simmonds, M. J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192214906 · Cited by 17
“The reduced access to healthcare during the COVID-19 worsened outcomes in disadvantaged areas and marginalised communities [56].”
BackgroundGiacaman, R., Hammoudeh, W., Mitwalli, S., Khalawi, H., & Kienzler, H. (2022) · International Journal of Social Determinants of Health and Health Services · doi:10.1177/00207314221139792 · Cited by 13
Emmanuel, F., Hassan, A., Ahmad, A., et al. (2023) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.34480 · Cited by 13
“It has pushed healthcare systems beyond their optimal functional limits, highlighting huge inequities in health and the critical importance of having resilient health systems [2,3].”
BackgroundHas COVID-19 increased inequality in mortality by income in the Netherlands?
Wouterse, B., Geisler, J., Bär, M., & van Doorslaer, E. K. A. (2023) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2022-219845 · Cited by 13
Social disparities in alcohol's harm to others: evidence from 32 European countries
Kilian, C., Manthey, J., Braddick, F., López‐Pelayo, H., & Rehm, J. T. (2023) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2023.104079 · Cited by 13
Trias‐Llimós, S., Spijker, J., Blanes, A., & Permanyer, I. (2023) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2023.101461 · Cited by 12
“Yet, monitoring detailed cause-of-death mortality inequalities is a priority in light of the potential increases of them derived from the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic (Bambra et al., 2020).”
BackgroundGlobal prevalence of violence against children and adolescents during COVID-19: A meta-analysis
Niu, L., Li, Y., Bai, R., Pagán, J. A., Zhang, D. “., & Díaz, Á. (2024) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2024.106873 · Cited by 14
The Association between Material Deprivation and Avoidable Mortality in Lisbon, Portugal
da Costa, C. H., Freitas, Â., Almendra, R., & Santana, P. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17228517 · Cited by 13
“COVID-19 highlights and exacerbates health inequalities [80,81].”
The effect of COVID-19 on emergency department imaging: what can we learn?
Sharperson, C. M., Hanna, T. N., Herr, K. D., Zygmont, M. E., Gerard, R. L., & Johnson, J.-O. (2021) · Emergency Radiology · doi:10.1007/s10140-020-01889-9 · Cited by 12
“Our findings are consistent with reported predilection of COVID-19 for Black, male, and older patients reported in the literature [19].”
ResultSurvey on usage and concerns of a COVID-19 contact tracing application in Japan
Machida, M., Nakamura, I., Saito, R., et al. (2021) · Public Health in Practice · doi:10.1016/j.puhip.2021.100125 · Cited by 13
“The rise in health inequalities due to the COVID-19 pandemic has become an increasing concern [22].”
Langley, J., Wallace, N., Davis, A., et al. (2021) · Policy Press eBooks · doi:10.47674/9781447361794 · Cited by 13
Certifying Health: The Unequal Legal Geographies of COVID-19 Certificates
Alemanno, A., & Białasiewicz, L. (2021) · European Journal of Risk Regulation · doi:10.1017/err.2021.38 · Cited by 13
Fernández‐Martínez, N. F., Ortiz-González-Serna, R., Serrano-Ortiz, Á., Rivera‐Izquierdo, M., Ruiz-Montero, R., Pérez-Contreras, M., de Alba, I. G.-F., Romero-Duarte, Á., & Salcedo-Leal, I. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18179018 · Cited by 13
“To this end, governments must allocate resources [75] to overcome barriers to health services access and expand social protection.”
BackgroundDeterminantes sociales de la salud asociados a la severidad y mortalidad en pacientes con COVID-19
Núñez‐Cortés, R., Ortega-Palavecinos, M., Soto-Carmona, C., Torres-Gangas, P., Concha-Rivero, M. P., & Torres‐Castro, R. (2021) · Gaceta Médica de México · doi:10.24875/gmm.20000778 · Cited by 13
Alvarez, C., Sims, H., Grant, K., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19063310 · Cited by 13
Aguilar‐Palacio, I., Maldonado, L., Marcos-Campos, I., Castel-Feced, S., Malo, S., Remón, C. A., & Rabanaque, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.928174 · Cited by 13
Ulate, M. M., Woodcock, R., Smith, I., et al. (2022) · Research Involvement and Engagement · doi:10.1186/s40900-022-00371-9 · Cited by 13
“Indeed, these existing inequalities risk being further compounded through the COVID-19 pandemic [12].”
BackgroundReceiving Healthcare Amidst Poverty During the COVID-19 Lockdowns: A Culture-Centered Interrogation
Dutta, M. J., Jayan, P., Elers, P., et al. (2022) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2022.2111634 · Cited by 13
Casillas, A., Rosas, L. G., Carson, S. L., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Health Services · doi:10.3389/frhs.2022.935297 · Cited by 13
“Five categories were identified: (1) engaged research partnered with multiethnic communities historically underrepresented in research, (2) bi-directional informational outreach, (3) vaccine events, (4) tailored media messages, and (5) generation of new projects and funding.”
BackgroundHaneef, R., Fayad, M., Fouillet, A., Sommen, C., Bonaldi, C., Wyper, G. M. A., Pires, S. M., Devleesschauwer, B., Rachas, A., Constantinou, P., et al. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0280990 · Cited by 13
Integrated care systems and equity: prospects and plans
Goddard, M. K. (2023) · Journal of Integrated Care · doi:10.1108/jica-08-2022-0044 · Cited by 14
Rotulo, A., Kondilis, E., Thwe, T., Gautam, S., Torcu, Ö., Vera‐Montoya, M., Marjan, S., Gazi, M. I., Putri, A. S., Hasan, R. B., et al. (2023) · PLOS Global Public Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0001148 · Cited by 16
“One key aspect of this pandemic that emerged quite early during the process of data sharing was the magnification effect that COVID-19 had on social inequalities, between and within countries [10].”
BackgroundMackintosh, L., Busby, A. D., Farrington, K., et al. (2023) · BMC Nephrology · doi:10.1186/s12882-023-03344-6 · Cited by 13
“The impact of the pandemic was experienced differently in relation to social determinants of health [40].”
BackgroundKira, I. A., Ibrahim, E.-S. R., Shuwiekh, H. A. M., & Ashby, J. S. (2021) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325024.2021.1992224 · Cited by 11
“COVID-19, with its severe economic impact, appeared to increase the disparities in the socioeconomic hierarchy reflecting existing unequal experiences of chronic diseases in minorities and the social determinants of health (Bambra et al., 2020).”
BackgroundUnderstanding health inequalities in Wales using the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method
Allen, J., Cotter-Roberts, A., Darlington, O. T., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.1056885 · Cited by 12
“The analysis uses survey data ranging from 2016–17 to 2019–20, which means that any health gaps quantified have not taken into account the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in exacerbating inequalities (26), which would likely impact the results of the analysis.”
MethodXia, Y., Wang, Q., Shi, L., Shi, Z., Chang, J., Xu, R. H., Miao, H., & Wang, D. (2023) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.14720 · Cited by 14
“Currently, COVID-19 has overwhelmed the health care system and imposed a heavy social and economic burden on individuals, families, communities, and countries (Ferguson et al., 2020; Han et al., 2020; Bambra et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSileo, K. M., Muhumuza, C., Helal, T., Olfers, A., Lule, H., Sekamatte, S., Kershaw, T., Wanyenze, R. K., & Kiene, S. M. (2023) · Reproductive Health · doi:10.1186/s12978-023-01566-3 · Cited by 14
“Researchers have similarly speculated that the pandemic would have more negative effects on women through the deepening of existing gender inequities [18, 53].”
BackgroundKnowledge exchange in crisis settings: A scoping review
McGill, E., Halliday, E. C., Egan, M., & Popay, J. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0282080 · Cited by 13
“However, the pandemic’s wide-ranging impacts also exemplifies how crises exacerbate health inequalities [2,3].”
BackgroundOjo-Aromokudu, O., Suffel, A. M., Bell, S., & Mounier‐Jack, S. (2023) · Ethnicity and Health · doi:10.1080/13557858.2023.2208313 · Cited by 13
Bossche, D. V., Zhao, J., Ares-Blanco, S., Astier-Peña, M. P., Decat, P., Kondo, N., Kroneman, M. W., Nishioka, D., Petrazzuoli, F., Rørtveit, G., et al. (2023) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-023-01968-6 · Cited by 14
“This inequity and disproportionate impact, which are subjacent and present in healthcare systems, did not uniquely come to the surface due to COVID-19 but have also unfolded in other global pandemics like the HIV pandemic, SARS, H1N1 and others [11, 12].”
BackgroundEquity in national healthcare economic evaluation guidelines: Essential or extraneous?
Avşar, T. S., Yang, X., & Lorgelly, P. K. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117220 · Cited by 13
Socioeconomic disparities in mobility behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic in developing countries
Lucchini, L., Langle-Chimal, O., Candeago, L., Melito, L., Chunet, A., Montfort, A., Lepri, B., Lozano‐Gracia, N., & Fraiberger, S. P. (2025) · EPJ Data Science · doi:10.1140/epjds/s13688-025-00532-2 · Cited by 25
“While some of these studies have shown that the pandemic has had a more pronounced impact on the most vulnerable [1, 6, 8, 18, 26, 33, 50] and that, in general, different mobility patterns are connected with income segregation [20, 45], little is known on the socioeconomic disparities in mobility…”
Unequal Mortality During the Spanish Flu
Basco, S., Domènech, J., & Rosés, J. R. (2022) · Palgrave studies in economic history · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-05668-0_3 · Cited by 10
Economic Crisis: A Factor for the Delayed Diagnosis of Breast Cancer
Petrovici, I., Ionică, M., & Neagoe, O. C. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18083998 · Cited by 12
“The Coronavirus pandemic can be viewed as a double crisis, both medical and economic [44,45].”
BackgroundSocial Work under COVID-19: A Thematic Analysis of Articles in ‘SW2020 under COVID-19 Magazine’
Sen, R., Kerr, C., MacIntyre, G., et al. (2021) · The British Journal of Social Work · doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcab094 · Cited by 12
“Inequalities were emphasised by the differential rates with which certain groups both caught and died from COVID-19—amongst these older people, those with disabilities and people from ethnically diverse communities (Bambra et al., 2020; Blundell et al., 2020).”
BackgroundWang, K., Wong, E. L., Ho, K., et al. (2021) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-021-01527-x · Cited by 12
The Public Health Governance of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Bibliometric Analysis
Yang, K., & Qi, H. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare10020299 · Cited by 14
The Impact of the Covid‐19 Global Health Pandemic in Early Childhood Education Within Four Countries
McNair, L. J., Ravenscroft, J., Rizzini, I., Tisdall, E. K. M., Biersteker, L., Shabalala, F. S., Thwala, S. K., Dlamini, C. N., Bush, M., Gwele, M., et al. (2022) · Social Inclusion · doi:10.17645/si.v10i2.5009 · Cited by 15
“ital exclusion and poor mental health amongst children (Bambra et al., 2020; World Bank, 2021).”
BackgroundInfluentialWang, L., Wen, W., Chen, C., Tang, J., Wang, C., Zhou, M., Cheng, Y., Zhang, X., Wang, M., Feng, Z., et al. (2022) · The Italian Journal of Pediatrics/Italian journal of pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s13052-022-01321-7 · Cited by 12
“It’s very critical to educate clear information and transparent communication from public health, governments and leaders about the safety of childhood COVID-19 vaccines [12, 21].”
BackgroundGriffin, T. L., Grey, E., Lambert, J. D., Gillison, F., Townsend, N. P., & Solomon-Moore, E. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-15441-0 · Cited by 12
“While we did not gain individual-level income data, it is likely that our sample is not representative of underserved and minority ethnic groups in the UK amongst which the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic are known to be worse [38, 39].”
BackgroundWhitehead, J., Gan, H., Heerikhuisen, J., et al. (2023) · Epidemiology and Infection · doi:10.1017/s0950268823000572 · Cited by 12
Health and Wellbeing under Covid-19: The GreenCovid Survey
Guzmán, V., Garrido‐Cumbrera, M., Braçe, O., Hewlett, D., & Foley, R. (2021) · Irish Geography · doi:10.55650/igj.2020.1420 · Cited by 15
Trans Fat Free by 2023—A Building Block of the COVID-19 Response
Bösch, S., Westerman, L., Renshaw, N., & Pravst, I. (2021) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2021.645750 · Cited by 16
“The Syndemic of COVID-19 and NCDs COVID-19 and NCDs interact to form a syndemic—parallel epidemics of health problems which interact synergistically, have intertwined risk factors and mutually enhance each other against a background of shared social and economic inequalities (2).”
BackgroundMarmet, S., Wicki, M., Gmel, G. E., Gachoud, C., Bertholet, N., & Studer, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.692884 · Cited by 12
“For the last part of the analysis, covariates were categorized into four groups: (1) COVID-related experiences, (2) sociodemographic factors, (3) mental health problems, and (4) personality.”
MethodThe psychological impact of the COVID-19 crisis on young Swiss men participating in a cohort study
Marmet, S., Wicki, M., Gmel, G. E., Gachoud, C., Daeppen, J., Bertholet, N., & Studer, J. (2021) · Swiss Medical Weekly · doi:10.4414/smw.2021.w30028 · Cited by 11
Sandholdt, C. T., Srivarathan, A., Kristiansen, M., Malling, G. M. H., Olesen, K. V. M., Jeppesen, M., & Lund, R. (2022) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/daac034 · Cited by 13
Epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 during the first three waves in Scotland: a national record linkage study
Leslie, K., Findlay, B., Ryan, T., Green, L. I., Harvey, C., Whettlock, A. E., Bishop, J., Hardy, V. P., Went, A., Wallace, L. A., et al. (2022) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2022-219367 · Cited by 11
Shareck, M., Alexander, S., & Glenn, N. M. (2021) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2021.102572 · Cited by 11
“, 2020) and the social and health inequalities that are being exacerbated or newly developed (Bambra et al., 2020).”
BackgroundHuman rights violations during the COVID-19 pandemic
Elshobake, M. R. M. (2021) · International Journal of Human Rights in Healthcare · doi:10.1108/ijhrh-11-2020-0097 · Cited by 11
Herrick, C. (2022) · BioSocieties · doi:10.1057/s41292-021-00266-0 · Cited by 13
“2011) to Covid-19 through the pernicious effects of inequality, deprivation, ethnicity, place of residence, poor housing or occupation (Public Health England 2020a, b) were, until February 2021, largely outside the classificatory ambit of the UK response even as evidence of their elevated risk and disproportionate bur…”
BackgroundKessler, S. E., & Aunger, R. V. (2022) · Evolution Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.1093/emph/eoac004 · Cited by 16
“While our study focuses largely on healthcare systems over evolutionary time, this does not dismiss the importance of socio-political or cultural factors—including historical drivers of current structural inequality [170, 171], poverty [172], recent experience with viral epidemics (e.”
BackgroundInequalities in COVID-19 inequalities research: Who had the capacity to respond?
Benach, J., Cash‐Gibson, L., Rojas‐Gualdrón, D. F., Padilla‐Pozo, Á., Fernández-Gracia, J., Eguı́luz, V. M., & the COVID-SHINE group (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0266132 · Cited by 11
“Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, social and health inequalities have been exacerbated [1, 2].”
BackgroundWei, H., Daniels, S., Whitfield, C. A., Han, Y., Denning, D. W., Hall, I., Regan, M., Verma, A., & van Tongeren, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.864506 · Cited by 12
“Although the sample of the two studies may not be directly comparable, it is possible that financial conditions served a social determinant of COVID-19 related health outcome (33).”
BackgroundZachariah, D., Mouwad, D., Muscat, D. M., Ayre, J., Nutbeam, D., & McCaffery, K. J. (2022) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730.2022.2118910 · Cited by 11
“This persistent inequality in COVID-19 outcomes highlights the ongoing need to rapidly understand and address the evolving needs and experiences of disadvantaged and diverse communities (Bambra et al., 2020).”
BackgroundGray, T. W., Podewils, L. J., Rasulo, R. M., et al. (2023) · Journal of Primary Care & Community Health · doi:10.1177/21501319231171519 · Cited by 11
The COVID-19 pandemic eroded system support but not social solidarity
Bor, A., Jørgensen, F. J., & Petersen, M. B. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0288644 · Cited by 18
Social inequalities and the COVID-19 pandemic
Sorci, G. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116484 · Cited by 11
Li, A., Baker, E., & Bentley, R. (2024) · Housing Studies · doi:10.1080/02673037.2024.2366961 · Cited by 11
“Recognising the increasing implications of housing during the COVID-19, an emerging field of research has investigated how the mental health impacts of the pandemic was related to housing (Bambra et al. , 2020; Parsell & Pawson, 2022).”
Trentin, M., Rubini, E., Facci, G., Ragazzoni, L., Valente, M., & Corte, F. D. (2024) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.104658 · Cited by 11
McCabe, R., Pollack, R., Broadbent, P., Thomson, R., Igelström, E., Pearce, A., Bambra, C. L., Bennett, D. L., Alexiou, A., Daras, K., et al. (2024) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2024-222313 · Cited by 12
“15 16 21 While some broad measures have been taken by the UK Government in response to this situation, there has been a lack of policy explicitly addressing rising child poverty—such as removing the ‘two-child limit’ and ‘benefit cap’ on financial support.”
Self-citationStevenson, H., & Alzyood, M. A. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-22741-0 · Cited by 11
“The repercussions for health systems, society and economies have been both severe and long-lasting [2].”
Longer-Term Effects of SARS-CoV-2 Infection on Asthma Exacerbation
Duong, K. E., Henry, S. S., Cabana, M. D., & Duong, T. Q. (2025) · The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology In Practice · doi:10.1016/j.jaip.2025.05.010 · Cited by 12
Accelerated brain ageing during the COVID-19 pandemic
Mohammadi‐Nejad, A., Craig, M., Cox, E. F., Chen, X., Jenkins, G. R., Francis, S., Sotiropoulos, S. N., & Auer, D. P. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-61033-4 · Cited by 20
Emergent Change in a Mexican Midwifery Center Organization Amidst the COVID-19 Crisis
Alonso, C., Storey, A. S., Fajardo, I., & Borboleta, H. (2021) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2021.611321 · Cited by 11
“The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted health inequities and systemic gaps and failures (Bambra et al., 2020).”
BackgroundEnvironmental Determinants of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
Brandt, E. B., & Baye, T. M. (2021) · Current Allergy and Asthma Reports · doi:10.1007/s11882-021-00993-1 · Cited by 11
“being essential workers during the lockdown [21, 23, 24].”
COVID-19 und soziale Ungleichheit
Knöchelmann, A., & Richter, M. (2021) · Public Health Forum · doi:10.1515/pubhef-2020-0106 · Cited by 11
The healthy behaviours and COVID-19 mortality among Iranian women: a case–control study
Pourfarzi, F., Pouran, S. R., Dargahi, A., et al. (2021) · BMC Women s Health · doi:10.1186/s12905-021-01512-0 · Cited by 11
“The reports are replete with significantly higher rate of fatality under COVID-19 and NCD synergistic pandemic, syndemic, which is especially of concern for low-income and marginalised individuals who undergo economic and social inequalities and usually do not access proper health services [22].”
BackgroundWoodrow, N., Fairbrother, H., Crowder, M., Goyder, E., Griffin, N., Holding, E., & Quirk, H. (2021) · Qualitative Research Journal · doi:10.1108/qrj-06-2021-0064 · Cited by 12
Burgess, A., Cavanagh, K., Strauss, C., & Oliver, B. R. (2021) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2021.1070 · Cited by 11
Viegas, L. L., Ventura, D. D. F. L., & Ventura, M. (2022) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/0102-331x00168121 · Cited by 12
Girolamo, C. D., Gnavi, R., Landriscina, T., Forni, S., Falcone, M., Calandrini, E., Cesaroni, G., Russo, A. G., Leoni, O., Fanizza, C., et al. (2022) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2021-218452 · Cited by 11
Green, H., Fernandez, R. S., & MacPhail, C. L. (2022) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1111/hsc.13827 · Cited by 11
The critical (micro)political economy of health: A more-than-human approach
Fox, N. J. (2022) · Health An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health Illness and Medicine · doi:10.1177/13634593221113212 · Cited by 11
“…social position and health – first documented by Engels (1993) in Victorian England continue to be observed for mortality and a wide range of morbidities in contemporary scholarship (Bambra et al., 2020; Doyal and Pennell, 1979; Marmot and Bell, 2012; Scambler, 2012; Townsend and Davidson, 1982).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Bambra, C., Riordan, R., Ford, J., & Matthews, F.
- Affiliations
- Newcastle University (GB)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Bambra, Clare
- Venue
- Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2020-06-13
- Volume
- 74
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 964-968
- ISSN
- 0141-7681 (ISSN-L)
- 0143-005X
- 1470-2738
- PMC
- PMC7298201
- OpenAlex
- W3034285292
- Cited by
- 2,118
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 216 · 2025: 196 · 2024: 298 · 2023: 364 · 2022: 508 · 2021: 454 · 2020: 80
- FWCI
- 174.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Repository@Hull (Worktribe) (University of Hull) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Newcastle University ePrints (Newcastle Univesity)
- Funders
- National Institute for Health Research (NIHR200173)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Public Health and Social Inequalities
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Healthcare Systems and Challenges
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, health disparities, syndemic, social determinants of health, socioeconomic disparities, ethnic inequality, regional disparities, economic impact of lockdown, public health policy
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Humans, Pneumonia, Viral, Socioeconomic Factors, Coronavirus Infections, Health Status Disparities, Healthcare Disparities, Pandemics, Social Determinants of Health
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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