Respiratory sinus arrhythmia in humans: how breathing pattern modulates heart rate
Abstract
The relationship of respiratory sinus arrhythmia amplitude (RSA) to tidal volume and breathing frequency was quantified during voluntarily controlled tidal volume and breathing frequency and spontaneous quiet breathing. Seventeen seated subjects breathed via mouthpiece and nose-clip, maintaining constant tidal volumes at each of several breathing frequencies. Inspiratory breath hold was zero frequency. Log RSA was plotted vs. log frequency for each tidal volume. The large stable RSA for frequencies less than 6 cycles/min was called low-frequency intercept (LFI, 20 +/- 5 beats/min). Low-frequency intercept was inversely proportional to a subject's age only to 35 yr. At higher breathing frequencies above a characteristic corner frequency (fC, 7.2 +/- 1.5 cycles/min) RSA decreased with constant slope (roll-off; 21 +/- 3.4 dB/decade). The RSA-volume relationship was linear permitting normalization of RSA-frequency curves for tidal volume to yield one curve. Spontaneous breathing data points fell on this curve. Voluntarily coupling of heart rate to breathing frequency in integer ratios reduced breath-by-breath variability of RSA without changing mean RSA. In conclusion, low-frequency intercept, corner frequency, and roll-off characterize an individual's RSA-frequency relationship during both voluntarily controlled and spontaneous breathing.
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Maximisation of RSA/HRV at around 6 breaths per min has been confirmed by numerous studies.
“Maximisation of RSA/HRV at around 6 breaths per min has since been confirmed by numerous studies [65, 73, 74].”
From The physiological effects of slow breathing in the healthy human (2017) · cites this paper as [73]
Increasing tidal volume and diaphragmatic breathing significantly increase RSA, significantly more so at slower respiration rates.
“Increasing tidal volume [36, 73, 76] and diaphragmatic breathing [18] have also been shown to significantly increase RSA, significantly more so at slower respiration rates.”
From The physiological effects of slow breathing in the healthy human (2017) · cites this paper as [73]
Numerous studies have reported decreased RSA with increasing respiration rate.
“Conversely, numerous studies have reported decreased RSA with increasing respiration rate [72, 73, 77].”
From The physiological effects of slow breathing in the healthy human (2017) · cites this paper as [73]
Voluntary breathing might not be essential to realize the basic physiological benefits of slow breathing techniques; spontaneous slow breathing without cognitive motor intent may be sufficient.
“However, there is also evidence that voluntary breathing might not be essential to realize the basic physiological benefits of these techniques; spontaneous slow breathing without cognitive motor intent may be sufficient (Hirsch and Bishop, 1981; Herrero et al., 2018).”
From Hypothesis: Pulmonary Afferent Activity Patterns During Slow, Deep Breathing Contribute to the Neural Induction of Physiological Relaxation (2019) · cites this paper as Hirsch and Bishop, 1981
RSA shows greater amplitude during higher tidal volumes and lower respiratory frequencies.
“Regarding respiratory depth, respiratory sinus arrhythmia [which reflects HF when the breathing frequency is comprised between 9 and 24 cycles per minute (Malik, 1996)] shows greater amplitude during higher tidal volumes and lower respiratory frequencies (Hirsch and Bishop, 1981; Shaffer et al., 2014).”
From Heart Rate Variability and Cardiac Vagal Tone in Psychophysiological Research – Recommendations for Experiment Planning, Data Analysis, and Data Reporting (2017) · cites this paper as Hirsch and Bishop, 1981
HRV could be affected by respiratory depth and respiratory frequency.
“The proposed reason for controlling respiration is that HRV could be affected in certain circumstances by respiratory depth, the amount of air taken into the lungs (Hirsch and Bishop, 1981), and respiratory frequency, the amount of breaths per minute (Brown et al., 1993; Houtveen et al., 2002).”
From Heart Rate Variability and Cardiac Vagal Tone in Psychophysiological Research – Recommendations for Experiment Planning, Data Analysis, and Data Reporting (2017) · cites this paper as Hirsch and Bishop, 1981
When patient and therapist are talking with each other, their breathing patterns will often become synchronized, which in turn may synchronize their heart rates and their associated levels of physiological arousal.
“For instance, when patient and therapist are talking with each other, their breathing patterns will often become synchronized (Warner, 1996; McFarland, 2001), which in turn may synchronize their heart rates and their associated levels of physiological arousal (Hirsch and Bishop, 1981).”
From Synchrony in Psychotherapy: A Review and an Integrative Framework for the Therapeutic Alliance (2016) · cites this paper as Hirsch and Bishop, 1981
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- Authors
- Hirsch, J. A., & Bishop, B.
- Venue
- American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology
- Publisher
- American Physiological Society
- Published
- 1981-10-01
- Volume
- 241
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- H620-H629
- ISSN
- 0363-6135 (ISSN-L)
- 1522-1539
- OpenAlex
- W2126518215
- Cited by
- 1,105
- References
- 1
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 37 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 44 · 2013: 45 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 3.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Heart Rate Variability and Autonomic Control
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroscience of respiration and sleep
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Non-Invasive Vital Sign Monitoring
- Keywords
- respiratory sinus arrhythmia, heart rate, tidal volume, respiratory rate, corner frequency, roll-off, spontaneous breathing, age differences
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Heart Rate, Humans, Lung Volume Measurements, Male, Middle Aged, Respiration, Tidal Volume
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