Optimizing exposure therapy for anxiety disorders: an inhibitory learning and inhibitory regulation approach
Open accessAbstract
Exposure-based cognitive-behavioral therapy is the treatment of choice for anxiety disorders. Unfortunately, many individuals fail to benefit from treatment or demonstrate a return of fear. Inhibitory learning and inhibitory regulation models provide a parsimonious and unifying framework from which to situate exposure therapy and provide useful strategies to augment exposure therapy, especially as individuals with anxiety disorders show inhibitory deficits. This paper provides an overview of our application of inhibitory learning from the science of extinction, and inhibitory regulation from the neuroscience of emotion regulation, to exposure therapy for anxiety disorders.
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Exposure therapy is based on the assumption that phobic anxiety and fear are reduced by repeated exposure to feared or avoided stimuli, resulting in habituation and fear extinction by repeated violation of threat expectancy.
“In general, exposure therapy is based on the assumption that phobic anxiety and fear are reduced by repeated exposure to feared or avoided stimuli, resulting in habituation and fear extinction by repeated violation of threat expectancy (62, 63).”
From Combined Fainting and Psychogenic Non-epileptic Seizures as Significant Therapy Hurdles in Blood-Injury-Injection Phobia: A Mini-Review and Case Report (2022) · cites this paper as [63]
The Introduction (page not provided) defines exposure therapy as repeated exposure to feared or avoided cues, and the Violation of Expectancies section links extinction learning to violated threat expectancies. But the Mechanisms section treats habituation as a descriptive pattern, not an established mechanism of lasting improvement; the paper also says fear reduction is not the goal of its expectancy-violation approach. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredInhibitory learning is currently deemed the more suitable explanation model for anxiety disorders, especially since these patients display impaired inhibitory regulation and learning and thus extinction.
“Inhibitory learning is currently deemed the more suitable explanation model for anxiety disorders, especially since these patients display impaired inhibitory regulation and learning and thus extinction (63).”
From Combined Fainting and Psychogenic Non-epileptic Seizures as Significant Therapy Hurdles in Blood-Injury-Injection Phobia: A Mini-Review and Case Report (2022) · cites this paper as [63]
The ‘Deficits in Inhibition in Anxiety Disorders’ section says that people with anxiety disorders show deficits in extinction learning and that inhibitory-learning deficits may help explain persistent fear. The paper also describes inhibitory learning as central to extinction, but it does not clearly rank it as the more suitable explanation model for anxiety disorders as a whole. Our copy provides no page number for these passages. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredExposure therapy reduces anxiety by weakening learned associations between feared stimuli and negative outcomes, and strengthening inhibitory learning.
“Exposure therapy, a potent behavioral treatment approach used in CBT, reduces anxiety by weakening learned associations between feared stimuli and negative outcomes, and strengthening inhibitory learning (i.e., a feared stimulus does not signal threat) (Craske, 2015).”
From Exposure Therapy Acceptability Among Pregnant Latinas With Anxiety: A Qualitative Content Analysis (2025) · cites this paper as Craske, 2015
The Introduction describes exposure therapy as effective, and the ‘Mechanisms of Exposure Therapy: Inhibitory Model of Extinction’ section supports the development of a competing, non-threat association that can lessen fear. But that section says the original feared-stimulus–outcome association is left intact, rather than weakened, so the proposed mechanism is only partly supported. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Wechsler, T. F., Kümpers, F., & Mühlberger, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01758 · Cited by 282 · see citing works
Kleindienst, N., Priebe, K., Görg, N., Dyer, A., Steil, R., Lyssenko, L., Winter, D., Schmahl, C., & Bohus, M. (2016) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.3402/ejpt.v7.30375 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“Specifically, Craske (2015) argues that exposure therapy needs to counter the patients’ original expectations, thereby inducing a secondary inhibitory association.”
BackgroundRevisiting the Cognitive Model of Depression: The Role of Expectations
Rief, W., & Joormann, J. (2019) · Clinical Psychology in Europe · doi:10.32872/cpe.v1i1.32605 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Exposure therapy in anxiety disorders has been reformulated as a therapy to disconfirm negative expectations, and to increase inhibition of avoidance behavior (Craske, 2015; Craske et al., 2014).”
BackgroundAdaptive and maladaptive emotion processing and regulation, and the case of alexithymia
Panayiotou, G., Panteli, M., & Vlemincx, E. (2019) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2019.1671322 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“…use of ineffective coping can compromise decision making, solidification of coping repertoires, resilience during future challenges and social effectiveness (Aldao et al., 2010; Craske, 2015; Kashdan & Rottenberg, 2010) incurring increased allostatic load and compromised physical and mental health.”
BackgroundErwartungsfokussierte Psychotherapeutische Interventionen (EFPI)
Rief, W., & Glombiewski, J. A. (2016) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000442374 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“Michelle Craske [Craske, 2015; Craske et al., 2014] brachte für die Expositionsbehandlung exzellente Ideen vor, wie deren Ergebnis durch die Berücksichtigung von grundlegenden Lernmechanismen (z.B. die Rolle des Kontextlernens) verbessert werden kann.”
BackgroundFerrando, C., & Selai, C. (2021) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2021.100684 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Using expectation violation models to improve the outcome of psychological treatments
Rief, W., Sperl, M. F. J., Braun-Koch, K., Khosrowtaj, Z., Kirchner, L., Schäfer, L. N., Schwarting, R. K. W., Teige‐Mocigemba, S., & Panitz, C. (2022) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102212 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
The role of expectations in mental disorders and their treatment
Rief, W., & Glombiewski, J. A. (2017) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.20427 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Can Psychological Expectation Models Be Adapted for Placebo Research?
Rief, W., & Petrie, K. J. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01876 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Several treatment approaches actually set out to induce expectation violations (e.g., exposure therapy in anxiety disorders; Craske et al., 2014; Craske, 2015).”
BackgroundDavis, M. L., Witcraft, S. M., Baird, S. O., & Smits, J. A. J. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-803457-6.00003-9 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
On the Maintenance of Expectations in Major Depression – Investigating a Neglected Phenomenon
Κube, T., Rief, W., & Glombiewski, J. A. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00009 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Modifying patients’ expectations through exposure to expectation-violating situations has been discussed as a promising approach in the treatment of anxiety disorders (Craske et al., 2014; Craske, 2015), obsessive compulsive disorders (Craske et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialA translational perspective on neural circuits of fear extinction: Current promises and challenges
Sevenster, D., Visser, R., & D'Hooge, R. (2018) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2018.07.002 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Within-session extinction is not considered a good marker for a longer-term reduction in fear responding, or in therapeutic terms, of ‘successful’ extinction learning (Craske, 2015; Plendl & Wotjak, 2010): individuals that show a strong reduction of fear responses from the beginning to the end of a session may show a…”
BackgroundInfluentialSalkovskis, P. M., Sighvatsson, M. B., & Sigurðsson, J. F. (2023) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465823000590 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Even today his ideas are used as an experimental paradigm to characterise abnormal behaviour, e.g. in the inhibition learning theory (Craske, 2015; Craske et al ., 2008).”
MethodSchrammen, E., Roesmann, K., Rosenbaum, D., Redlich, R., Harenbrock, J., Dannlowski, U., & Leehr, E. J. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104895 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
A Current Learning Theory Approach to the Etiology and Course of Anxiety and Related Disorders
Zinbarg, R. E., Williams, A. L., & Mineka, S. (2022) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072220-021010 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
van Dis, E. A. M., Hagenaars, M. A., Bockting, C., & Engelhard, I. M. (2019) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2019.103416 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Moving from tradition-based to competence-based psychotherapy
Rief, W. (2021) · Evidence-Based Mental Health · doi:10.1136/ebmental-2020-300219 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
de Jong, R., Lommen, M. J. J., de Jong, P. J., & Nauta, M. H. (2018) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2018.05.002 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“increase generalization of extinction learning (Craske, 2015).”
MethodThompson, A., McEvoy, P. M., & Lipp, O. V. (2018) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2018.07.001 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Duits, P., Richter, J., Baas, J. M. P., Engelhard, I. M., Limberg, A., Heitland, I., Hamm, A. O., & Cath, D. C. (2017) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000266 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Those behavioral experiments during exposure therapy are hypothesized to be most effective when expectancies with regard to the feared outcome are maximally violated by the actual outcome of the behavioral experiment (Craske, 2015; Craske, Liao, Brown, & Vervliet, 2012; Craske et al., 2014).”
Russman Block, S., Norman, L. J., Zhang, X., Mannella, K. A., Yang, H., Angstadt, M., Abelson, J. L., Himle, J. A., Taylor, S. F., & Fitzgerald, K. D. (2023) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.21111173 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Future-oriented imagery rescripting facilitates conducting behavioral experiments in social anxiety
Landkroon, E., Meyerbröker, K., Salemink, E., & Engelhard, I. M. (2022) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2022.104130 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Duits, P., Baas, J. M. P., Engelhard, I. M., Richter, J., Dijk, H. M. H., Limberg, A., Heitland, I., Hamm, A. O., & Cath, D. C. (2021) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102361 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Your presence soothes me: a neural process model of aversive emotion regulation via social buffering
Bratec, S. M., Bertram, T., Starke, G., Brandl, F., Xie, X., & Sorg, C. (2020) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsaa068 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“It has also been suggested that the presence of the psychotherapist during exposure therapy may worsen the generalization of the acquired neutral response to other contexts, due to the mechanisms of inhibitory learning (Craske et al., 2008; Craske, 2015).”
BackgroundMagson, N. R., Handford, C. M., & Norberg, M. M. (2020) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2020.06.005 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Miegel, F. S., Bücker, L., Kühn, S., Mostajeran, F., Moritz, S., Baumeister, A., Lohse, L., Blömer, J., Grzella, K., & Jelinek, L. (2022) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-022-09992-5 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Contrary to the assumption that the highest possible induction of distress and subsequent decline are necessary in exposure therapy, it has been argued that (besides expectancy violation) a sustained level of distress is a prominent predictor of long-term outcome [64, 65] and thus needs to be induced in exposure treat…”
BackgroundVeen, C., Jacobs, G. E., Philippens, I. H. C. H. M., & Vermetten, E. H. G. J. M. (2018) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2017_34 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Asbrand, J., Heinrichs, N., Schmidtendorf, S., Nitschke, K., & Tuschen‐Caffier, B. (2020) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-019-00954-w · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Pietrzak, T., Lohr, C., Jahn, B., & Hauke, G. (2018) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs8030029 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“At this point the importance of acceptance strategies was highlighted [56].”
BackgroundErwartungsfokussierte psychotherapeutische Interventionen bei Personen mit depressiver Symptomatik
Κube, T., Glombiewski, J. A., & Rief, W. (2019) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000496944 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Integratives Störungsmodell als Grundlage der Therapieplanung
Rief, W., & Strauss, B. M. (2018) · Psychotherapeut · doi:10.1007/s00278-018-0295-z · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Auch die Exposition in der Verhaltenstherapie wird zwischenzeitlich sehr stark als Intervention verstanden, um Patientenerwartungen zu modifizieren (Craske 2015; Craske et al. 2014).”
BackgroundDevaluation of threat memory using a dual-task intervention does not reduce context renewal of fear
Landkroon, E., Mertens, G., & Engelhard, I. M. (2019) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2019.103480 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Comparing three extinction methods to reduce fear expression and generalization
Chen, Y., Lin, X., Ai, S., Sun, Y., Shi, L., Meng, S., Lü, L., & Shi, J. (2021) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113714 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Cortical oxygenation during exposure therapy – in situ fNIRS measurements in arachnophobia
Rosenbaum, D., Leehr, E. J., Rubel, J. A., Maier, M. J., Pagliaro, V., Deutsch, K., Hudak, J., Metzger, F. G., Fallgatter, A. J., & Ehlis, A. (2020) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102219 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“…may explain the evidence in rodent models better, the inhibitory learning model of extinction proposes that the learned association of conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus stays intact and that instead, the subject learns to inhibit the association (Craske, 2015; Craske et al., 2014).”
BackgroundBas‐Hoogendam, J. M., van Steenbergen, H., Blackford, J. U., Tissier, R., van der Wee, N. J. A., & Westenberg, P. M. (2019) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22962 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“The effect of exposure therapy is thought to rely (at least partly) on habituation responses, but it is important to note that fear extinction, defined as the decrease in fear during repeated exposure to a previously conditioned stimulus, which is now presented in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus, also plays a…”
BackgroundCued fear conditioning in humans using immersive Virtual Reality
Quezada-Scholz, V. E., Laborda, M. A., Martín, C. S., Míguez, G., Alfaro, F., Mallea, J., & Díaz, F. R. (2022) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2022.101803 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
van Veen, S. C., Zbozinek, T. D., van Dis, E. A. M., Engelhard, I. M., & Craske, M. G. (2024) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2024.104490 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Nishikawa, Y., Fracalanza, K., Rector, N. A., & Laposa, J. M. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23363 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Wannemueller, A., Fasbender, A., Kampmann, Z., Weiser, K., Schaumburg, S., Velten, J., & Margraf, J. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01534 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“In turn, a highly standardized LG-OST might target fear-evoking expectancies especially well and promotes the acquisition of new non-threat expectancies for BII-associated situations (see Craske, 2015 for a detailed explanation of factors leading to successful between session exposure).”
BackgroundWinkler, C. D., Pittig, A., Phillips, L. J., & Felmingham, K. L. (2025) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2025.104709 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Laposa, J. M., Hawley, L. L., Grimm, K. J., Katz, D. E., & Rector, N. A. (2018) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2018.03.012 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Schultz, J., Baumeister, A., Schmotz, S., Moritz, S., & Jelinek, L. (2023) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-023-07536-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Whereas Foa and Kozak [9] emphasize the mechanism of habituation in their “emotional processing theory,” Craske [10] highlights the importance of the approach of inhibitory learning and inhibitory regulation to maximize the effectiveness of exposure therapy.”
BackgroundMcInerney, J., Brown, P., Bird, J. C., Nickless, A., Brown, G. P., & Freeman, D. H. (2021) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2021.103928 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Psychotherapy and Mental Health as a Psychological Science Discipline
Wïttchen, H., Härtling, S., & Hoyer, J. (2015) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000430772 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“hibitory learning and inhibitory regulation models in anxiety in order to optimize extinction learning [Craske, 2015].”
BackgroundThe effects of depression on the treatment of OCD in a residential sample
Wetterneck, C. T., Leonard, R. C., Adams, T. G., Riemann, B. C., Grau, P. P., & Franklin, M. E. (2020) · Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic · doi:10.1521/bumc.2020.84.suppa.12 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Himle, J. A., LeBeau, R. T., Weaver, A., Brydon, D. M., Bybee, D., Kilbourne, A. M., Rose, R. D., Tucker, K. M., Kim, R., Perez, M., et al. (2019) · Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications · doi:10.1016/j.conctc.2019.100464 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Exposure therapy is the cornerstone of WCBT and involves repetitive exposure to challenging social situations that are mostly work-related, within an inhibitory-based learning model [63].”
Jenness, J. L., DeLonga, K., Lewandowski, R. E., Spiro, C. N., Crowe, K., Martell, C. R., Towbin, K. E., Stringaris, A. K., & McCauley, E. (2022) · Evidence-Based Practice in Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1080/23794925.2022.2042871 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Behavioral processes have long been understood to mediate CBT (Powers et al., 2017) as reflected in the anxiety literature: exposure leads to inhibitory learning and/or habituation, cognitive reappraisal, and improved self-efficacy (Craske, 2015; Foa & Kozak, 1986; Kindt, 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialKirchner, L., Κube, T., D’Astolfo, L., Strahler, J., Herbstreit, R., & Rief, W. (2023) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2023.101859 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Laposa, J. M., Hawley, L. L., Grimm, K. J., Katz, D. E., & Rector, N. A. (2020) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-020-10121-4 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“In addition, 1 3 concurrent use of IE and in vivo exposure may help optimize new learning, as outlined in inhibitory learning approaches to the extinction of fear (Blakey and Abramowitz 2018; Arch and Abramowitz 2015; Craske 2015; Craske et al.”
Plaisted, H., Waite, P., & Creswell, C. (2021) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2021.103997 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Fear-potentiated startle reveals diminished threat extinction in pathological anxiety
Newsome, P., Ruiz, S. G., Gold, A. L., Pine, D. S., & Abend, R. (2022) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2022.11.011 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Locher, C., Hasler, S., & Gaab, J. (2016) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000443464 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…kann es als Stärke einer empirisch orientierten Therapie betrachtet werden, dass die SD als Methode der Wahl in der Behandlung spezifischer Phobien abgelöst und durch neue Konzepte wie Exposition [Fiegenbaum, 1988] und Erwartungsverletzung [Craske, 2015; Craske et al., 2014] ersetzt wurde.”
BackgroundVaıoulı, P., Panteli, M., & Panayiotou, G. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02329-8 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…significant threats to survival would tend to be specific animals, situations or events that are novel and unexpected, prompting both aversive experiences of fear and protective behavioral action tendencies to promote survival and adaptation (e.g. Craske, 2015; Panayiotou et al., 2021).”
BackgroundHoppe, J. M., Vegelius, J., Gingnell, M., Björkstrand, J., & Frick, A. (2022) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2022.101848 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Κube, T., & Hildebrandt, A. (2020) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000510610 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Rinck, M., & Becker, E. S. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-61814-1_4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
How expectations and therapeutic style influence counselling outcome
Schamong, I., D’Astolfo, L., Bollmann, S., Brakemeier, E., & Κube, T. (2022) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12609 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Opdensteinen, K. D., Rach, H., Gruszka, P., Schaan, L., Adolph, D., Pané‐Farré, C. A., Benke, C., Dierolf, A. M., Schneider, S., & Hechler, T. (2023) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000003041 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Generalization of exposure therapy: Systematic review and recommendations for future research
Kodzaga, I., Heistermann, J., & Zlomuzica, A. (2025) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2025.104751 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Becker, S., Witthöft, M., & Klan, T. (2018) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000479890 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
An Ecological Momentary Intervention for people with social anxiety: A descriptive case study
Gee, B. L., Batterham, P. J., Gulliver, A., Reynolds, J., & Griffiths, K. M. (2021) · Informatics for Health and Social Care · doi:10.1080/17538157.2021.1896525 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“These strategies were based on the inhibitory learning model as the central mechanism of exposure therapy for fear extinction.(71,72) Figure 6 presents the main screen of the app’s self-help modules.”
BackgroundMethodvon Mücke-Heim, I.-A., Walter, I., Nischwitz, S., & Erhardt, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.915058 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Inhibitory learning is currently deemed the more suitable explanation model for anxiety disorders, especially since these patients display impaired inhibitory regulation and learning and thus extinction (63).”
BackgroundExposure Therapy Acceptability Among Pregnant Latinas With Anxiety: A Qualitative Content Analysis
Ponting, C., Ong, E., Dunkel Schetter, C., & Chavira, D. A. (2025) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000589 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
MERGE: Misophonia and emotion regulation in a guided experience sampling study
Pavlacic, J. M., Dixon, L. J., Freshley, A., Buchanan, E. M., Cortese, B. M., Rheingold, A. A., Young, J. N., & Uhde, T. W. (2026) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2026.109709 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Tully, P. J., Pedersen, S. S., Cosh, S., & Foldes‐Busque, G. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-04927-9_9 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Mitsopoulou, T., Kasvikis, Y., Koumantanou, L., Giaglis, G., Skapinakis, P., & Mavreas, V. (2020) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2019.1663956 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“On the other hand, exposure-based behavior treatment (EBBT) has the advantage of simplicity and has become the gold standard for PD+/-AG (Craske, 2015; Emmelkamp et al., 2014; Moscovitch, Antony, & Swinson, 2009; Sánchez-Meca, RosaAlcázar, Marin-Martínez, & Gómez-Conesa, 2010).”
BackgroundAngenendt, J., Frommberger, U., Berger, T., & Domschke, K. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-3-437-22485-0.00012-9 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Nishikawa, Y., Fracalanza, K., Rector, N. A., & Laposa, J. M. (2022) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-022-10322-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…avoid or diminish psychotherapeutic experiences that focus on change (Katz et al., 2017; Leite & Kuiper, 2008), (2) inhibitory (or safety) learning (Blakey & Abramowitz, 2016; Craske, 2015; Tanovic et al., 2018; Wake et al., 2021), and (3) positive treatment expectations (Price & Anderson, 2012).”
BackgroundChing, T. H. W., & Tang, C. S. (2016) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.30.4.235 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…of inducing and reducing cognitive dissonance about TAF beliefs from the influence of exposure to threatening information and inhibitory learning (e.g., Craske, 2015; Craske et al., 2008; Craske et al., 2014) in interpreting the maintenance of TAF reduction in the combined intervention group.”
BackgroundResultGutzweiler, R., Schwarz, D., & In‐Albon, T. (2020) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000508454 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…von verschiedenen Interventionstechniken (z.B. interozeptive Exposition, Formulierung von Erwartungen, Benennen der auftretenden Emotionen im Sinne des “affect labeling” in Kombination mit Expositionen in vivo) zur Steigerung der Wirksamkeit der Exposition [Craske et al., 2014; Craske, 2015].”
BackgroundMiegel, F. S., Lindner, P., Schultz, J., Lohse, L., Yassari, A. H., & Jelinek, L. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-07194-9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Activating strong emotions (at least to a certain degree) is necessary for successful ET or ERP according to both the habituation model (Foa & Kozak, 1986) and the inhibitory learning model (Craske, 2015).”
Scheuermann, D., Melzig, C. A., & Benke, C. (2025) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2025.104719 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Mühlberger, M., Voderholzer, U., & Kindermann, P. (2016) · PSYCH up2date · doi:10.1055/s-0041-107999 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Therapeutenbegleitete und patientengeleitete Exposition bei Panikstörung mit Agoraphobie
Klan, T., Persike, M., & Hiller, W. (2016) · Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1026/1616-3443/a000348 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Wieviel Psychologie steckt in der Psychotherapie?
Wïttchen, H., & Rief, W. (2015) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000430796 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Büch, H. (2020) · Psychotherapie: Praxis · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-58980-9_16 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
SPECIAL ISSUE: Biofeedback-Integrated Exposure Therapy
Ewigman, N. L. (2023) · Biofeedback · doi:10.5298/1081-5937-51.02.01 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Smith, B. M., Barney, J. L., Ong, C. W., Barrett, T. S., Levin, M. E., & Twohig, M. P. (2022) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2024.100850 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sarawgi, S., & Mathews, R. E. (2025) · Children · doi:10.3390/children12040400 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“This is further complicated by differences in the utility/harm of some regulatory approaches depending on the implementation and specific psychopathology (e.g., use of cognitive reappraisal prior to engagement in exposures, which may decrease the effectiveness of inhibitory learning [11]).”
From Doubt to Direction: Untangling Pediatric Scrupulosity
Mathews, R. E., & Sarawgi, S. (2025) · Children · doi:10.3390/children12040528 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Fortunately, approaching E/RP from the lens of building distress/uncertainty tolerance [57,58] and targeting core motivations [22], regardless of surface-level symptoms, can set the stage for E/RP with scrupulosity symptoms.”
Hossan, M. M., Tasnim, R. A., & Eishita, F. Z. (2025) · Intermountain Engineering, Technology and Computing (IETC) · doi:10.1109/ietc64455.2025.11039392 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Meanwhile, Craske [1] explored strategies to optimize exposure therapy with inhibitory learning to disconfirm threat expectations.”
Cognitive behavioural therapy for a specific phobia of vomiting during pregnancy: a case study
Allinson, J., Barnbrook, M., & Challacombe, F. L. (2026) · The Cognitive Behaviour Therapist · doi:10.1017/s1754470x25100421 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“As repetition and use of different contexts in exposure is crucial to aid generalisation of learning (Craske, 2015), it perhaps would have been helpful to conduct more experiments in locations where Maisie would likely go with her child such as soft plays and playgrounds both within and between…”
A systematic review of pharmacological effects on human aversive memory
Xia, Y., Quednow, B. B., & Bach, D. R. (2026) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106548 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Inhibitory control training might be a gateway to enhance fear extinction
Dar, K. F., & Asthana, M. K. (2026) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2026.113335 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Badeja, D., Schier, F., Straka, H.-C., McGinity, M., & Hoyer, J. (2026) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2026.103150 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Altered prefrontal effective connectivity during emotion regulation in social anxiety disorder
Schrammen, E., Jamieson, A. J., Meinert, H., Böhnlein, J., Slump, T. M., Vogler, R. A., Menze, A., Meinert, S. L., Bauer, J., Goltermann, J., et al. (2026) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2026.10628 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“48 Importantly, although these results shift attention away from fronto-amygdala dysfunction, interpretations remain tentative because of the methodological limitations and specific challenges of DCM.”
A Self-Efficacy Measure for Use During Exposure in CBT Therapy for Childhood Anxiety Disorders
Cancilliere, M. K., Fryc, A., & Flannery-Schroeder, E. C. (2022) · Evidence-Based Practice in Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1080/23794925.2022.2148380 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Κube, T., & Jakobs, S. (2023) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000531150 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Dieser Fokus leitet sich aus Model-len zum inhibitorischen Lernen ab [Craske et al., 2014; Craske, 2015] und findet bereits eine erfolgreiche Anwendung in der Behandlung von Angststörungen [Pittig et al., 2021, 2023].”
BackgroundGrunewald, W., Stanley, T. B., & Smith, A. R. (2024) · CBT: science into practice · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-65339-1_10 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
In‐Albon, T., & Margraf, J. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-61814-1_47 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Papalini, S., Beckers, T., Oudenhove, L. V., & Vervliet, B. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.09.06.556396 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Papalini, S., Beckers, T., Oudenhove, L. V., & Vervliet, B. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.92831.1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Evidencia de procesos asociativos en la extinción de la memoria espacial en humanos
Nacional, I. P., Luna, D., Manzanares-Silva, M., Nacional, I. P., Rodríguez-González, K., Nacional, I. P., López-Cruz, H., & Nacional, I. P. (2017) · Revista Mexicana de Investigación en Psicología · doi:10.32870/rmip.v9i1.580
“…Astur, West, Griego, & Rowland, 2016), los cuales pueden ampliarse con la investigación sobre su extinción (e.g., Schoenfeld, Foreman, & Leplow, 2014; Schulz, Topic, De Souza Silva, & Huston, 2004) y fortalecerse por la aplicación de principios asociativos (e.g., Culver, Vervliet, & Craske, 2015).”
BackgroundAncestral roots: The origins of CPT
Galovski, T. E., Nixon, R. D. V., & Kaysen, D. L. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816715-1.00002-9
Symptombezogene Subgruppen von Patienten mit agoraphobischer Angst
Hoferichter, E., Schmidt, R. A. M., Höfler, M., Hoyer, J., Rottstädt, F., Weidner, K., & Noack, R. (2019) · Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1026/1616-3443/a000542
Angststörungen in der Kindheit
In‐Albon, T., & Pfeiffer, S. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-45995-9_33-1
Ein verfahrensübergreifendes Modell für psychische Störungen als Grundlage der Therapieplanung
Rief, W., & Strauss, B. M. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-3-437-21352-6.00004-3
Breaking the Cycle of Learned Fear: An Experimental Approach
van Dis, E. A. M. (2021) · doi:10.33540/934
Landkroon, E. (2021) · doi:10.33540/651
- Authors
- Craske, M.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Craske, Michelle
- ORCID
- Craske, Michelle
- Venue
- Verhaltenstherapie
- Publisher
- S. Karger AG
- Published
- 2015
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 134-143
- ISSN
- 1016-6262 (ISSN-L)
- 1423-0402
- OpenAlex
- W4294949187
- Cited by
- 124
- References
- 90
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 12.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Verhaltenstherapie (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- exposure therapy, anxiety disorders, inhibitory learning, extinction, emotion regulation, cognitive behavioral therapy, augmentation therapy, inhibitory deficits, return of fear
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