Assessing the New York City involuntary outpatient commitment pilot program
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: The study evaluated the effectiveness of a three-year outpatient commitment pilot program established in 1994 at Bellevue Hospital in New York City. METHODS: A total of 142 participants were randomly assigned; 78 received court-ordered treatment, which included enhanced services, and 64 received the enhanced-service package only. Between 57 and 68 percent of the subjects completed interviews at one, five, and 11 months after hospital discharge. Outcome measures included rehospitalization, arrest, quality of life, symptomatology, treatment noncompliance, and perceived level of coercion. RESULTS: On all major outcome measures, no statistically significant differences were found between the two groups. No subject was arrested for a violent crime. Eighteen percent of the court-ordered group and 16 percent of the control group were arrested at least once. The percentage rehospitalized during follow-up was about the same for both groups-51 percent and 42 percent, respectively. The groups did not differ significantly in the total number of days hospitalized during the follow-up period. Participants' perceptions of their quality of life and level of coercion were about the same. From the community service providers' perspective, patients in the two groups were similarly adherent to their required treatments. CONCLUSIONS: All results must be qualified by the fact that no pick-up order procedures for noncompliant subjects in the court-ordered group were implemented during the study, which compromised the differences between the conditions for the two groups, and that persons with a history of violence were excluded from the program.
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Two studies did not mention blinding (Swartz 1999; Steadman 2001).
“Two studies did not mentioned blinding (Swartz 1999; Steadman 2001).”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
Two studies were identified in the original 2003 search and the third in the 2014 search.
“Two of the studies were identified in the original search of 2003 (Swartz 1999; Steadman 2001) and the third in the 2014 search (Burns 2013).”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
Two included studies were from the USA comparing OPC with entirely voluntary treatment.
“We included three studies involving 749 participants: two studies from the USA comparing OPC with entirely voluntary treatment (Swartz 1999; Steadman 2001), and one UK study, the Oxford Community Treatment Order Evaluation Trial (OCTET), comparing two types of CCT interspaced with voluntary care (Burns 2013).”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In the comparison of court-ordered outpatient commitment with entirely voluntary care, there was no clear difference between groups in the number of participants with multiple readmissions (RR 1.87, 95% CI 0.87 to 4.01).
“There was no clear difference between people allocated to CTOs and controls (RR 1.87, 95% CI 0.87 to 4.01, Analysis 1.3).”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
The authors of Steadman 2001 supplied additional data for an intention-to-treat analysis (67 controls, 85 OPC).
“Similarly, the authors of the Steadman 2001 study supplied the additional data for an intention-to-treat analysis of their paper (67 people in the controls, 85 in the OPC group).”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
The inclusion of data from Steadman 2001 did not alter the overall effect.
“However, the inclusion of data from Steadman 2001 did not alter the overall effect and so we added them to data from Swartz 1999.”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In the comparison of court-ordered outpatient commitment with entirely voluntary care, there was no clear difference between allocation to CTO and controls in psychiatric symptoms and global state at follow-up (GAF MD -3.00, 95% CI -8.08 to 2.08).
“In both cases, there was no clear difference between allocation to CTO and controls at follow-up. It was only possible to impute SDs for the GAF scores (MD -3.00, 95% CI -8.08 to 2.08, Analysis 1.5).”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In the comparison of CCT versus control, participants on CCT did not feel more coerced than participants in the control group at 11 to 12 months (RR 1.30, 95% CI 0.98 to 1.71).
“This showed that participants on CCT did not feel more coerced that participants in the control group at 11 to 12 months (RR 1.30, 95% CI 0.98 to 1.71, Analysis 3.5).”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In the comparison of CTOs versus standard care encompassing both voluntary care and supervised discharge, there was no clear difference in readmission to hospital by 12 months (RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.17).
“There was no clear difference between participants on CTOs and controls in readmission to hospital by 12 months (RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.17, Analysis 3.1).”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In the comparison of CTOs versus standard care, there was no difference in global state (GAF) at follow-up (MD -1.36, 95% CI -4.07 to 1.35).
“At follow-up, there was no difference between people allocated to CTOs and controls in global state (GAF) (MD -1.36 95% CI -4.07 to 1.35, Analysis 3.4).”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In the New York study, there was a relatively small number of participants.
“In the case of the New York study (Steadman 2001), there was a relatively small number of participants”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
Including admissions to both acute facilities and state hospitals for people allocated to CTOs (49/85) and controls (42/67) in the New York study made no difference to the results (3 RCTs, n = 749, RR 0.93, 95% CI 0.80 to 1.09).
“Finally, we studied the effect of including admissions to both acute facilities and state hospitals for people allocated to CTOs (49/85) and controls (42/67) in the New York study (Steadman 2001). This made no difference to the results (3 RCTs, n = 749, RR 0.93, 95% CI 0.80 to 1.09).”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In the comparison of CTOs versus standard care, there was no clear statistical difference in the number of people who required more than one readmission by 12 months (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.31 to 3.33).
“There was no clear (statistical) difference in the number of people who required more than one readmission by 12 months (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.31 to 3.33, Analysis 3.3).”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In Steadman 2001, random sequence generation was judged low risk of selection bias because the study used a computer-generated random number list to identify assignment to intervention or control groups, splitting 200 numbers between groups.
“Random sequence genera- tion (selection bias) | Low risk | The study used a random number list to identify assignment to either the in- tervention or control group. Random number list was generated by computer, which then split 200 numbers between groups.”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In Steadman 2001, other bias was judged unclear risk, with no conflicts of interest reported, and the New York Police did not bring people for assessment when they breached their treatment orders, so there was no consequence to the order as intended by the law.
“Other bias | Unclear risk | Unclear, no conflict of interests reported. The New York Police did not bring people for assessment when they breached their treatment orders. Therefore, there was no consequence to the order as intended by the law.”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In Steadman 2001, selective reporting was judged unclear risk of reporting bias.
“Selective reporting (re- porting bias) | Unclear risk | Unclear from paper.”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In Steadman 2001, blinding was judged high risk of performance and detection bias because there was no specific mention of blinding, it was unlikely participants, clinicians or assessors were blind to treatment status, and some control participants and their clinicians believed they were in the intervention group.
“Blinding (performance bias and detection bias) All outcomes | High risk | No specific mention in the study. Although self-report measures were used for at least some of the outcomes, it was unlikely participants, clinicians or asses- sors were blind to treatment status. There was also confusion that resulted in some control participants and their clinicians believing that they were in”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For court-ordered outpatient commitment compared with entirely voluntary care, satisfaction with care (perceived coercion) by 11 to 12 months showed no clear difference (RR 1.36, 95% CI 0.97 to 1.89; 2 studies, 416 participants).
“10 Participant level outcomes: 6. Satisfaction with care: perceived coercion by 11 to 12 months | 2 | 416 | Risk Ratio (M-H, Fixed, 95% CI) | 1.36 [0.97, 1.89]”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In Steadman 2001, allocation concealment was judged unclear risk of selection bias.
“Allocation concealment (selection bias) | Unclear risk | Unclear. The printed list was maintained in the research team's office in a locked file. When the treatment team had completed their treatment plan, they called the research team who checked the computer list to see whether the client was to be assigned to the experimental or comparison group.”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For court-ordered outpatient commitment compared with entirely voluntary care, social functioning (at least 1 arrest) by 11 to 12 months showed no clear difference (RR 0.97, 95% CI 0.62 to 1.52; 2 studies, 416 participants).
“6.1 at least 1 arrest | 2 | 416 | Risk Ratio (M-H, Fixed, 95% CI) | 0.97 [0.62, 1.52]”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In Steadman 2001, court-ordered outpatient commitment compared with entirely voluntary care was associated with a risk ratio of 1.87 (95% CI 0.87 to 4.01) for compliance with medication by 11 to 12 months.
“| Steadman 2001 | 19/85 | 8/67 | | | 100% | 1.87[0.87,4.01] |”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For court-ordered outpatient commitment compared with entirely voluntary care, readmission to hospital by 11 to 12 months showed no clear difference (RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.79 to 1.21; 2 studies, 416 participants).
“1 Health service outcomes: 1. Readmission to hospi- tal - by 11 to 12 months | 2 | 416 | Risk Ratio (M-H, Fixed, 95% CI) | 0.98 [0.79, 1.21]”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In Steadman 2001, incomplete outcome data were judged high risk of attrition bias because only 57% to 68% of participants completed interviews at 1, 5 and 11 months after hospital discharge, and only some outcomes were assessed by ITT analysis.
“Incomplete outcome data (attrition bias) All outcomes | High risk | Only 57% to 68% of the participants completed interviews at 1, 5 and 11 months after hospital discharge. Only some outcomes were assessed by ITT analysis.”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For court-ordered outpatient commitment compared with entirely voluntary care, compliance with medication by 11 to 12 months showed no clear difference (RR 0.99, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.19; 2 studies, 416 participants).
“4 Health service outcomes: 4. Compliance with med- ication by 11 to 12 months | 2 | 416 | Risk Ratio (M-H, Fixed, 95% CI) | 0.99 [0.83, 1.19]”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For at least one arrest by 11 to 12 months, the pooled risk ratio for court-ordered outpatient commitment versus entirely voluntary care was 0.97 (95% CI 0.62 to 1.52; P=0.9).
“| Subtotal (95% CI) | 214 | 202 | | 100% | 0.97[0.62,1.52] |”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
In Steadman 2001, court-ordered outpatient commitment compared with entirely voluntary care was associated with a mean difference of -3 (95% CI -8.08 to 2.08) in psychiatric symptoms and global state at 11 to 12 months.
“| Steadman 2001 | 58 | 44 (12) | 40 | 47 (13) | | | 100% | -3[-8.08,2.08] |”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For court-ordered outpatient commitment compared with entirely voluntary care, social functioning (ever arrested/picked up by police for violence against a person) by 11 to 12 months showed no clear difference (RR 0.82, 95% CI 0.56 to 1.21; 2 studies, 416 participants).
“6.2 ever arrested/picked up by police for violence against a person | 2 | 416 | Risk Ratio (M-H, Fixed, 95% CI) | 0.82 [0.56, 1.21]”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For court-ordered outpatient commitment compared with entirely voluntary care, quality of life (Lehman Quality of Life Scale) showed no clear difference (MD -0.22, 95% CI -0.95 to 0.50; 2 studies, 406 participants).
“8 Participant level outcomes: 4. Quality of life: Lehman Quality of Life Scale | 2 | 406 | Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) | -0.22 [-0.95, 0.50]”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For court-ordered outpatient commitment compared with entirely voluntary care, homelessness by 11 to 12 months showed no clear difference (RR 0.67, 95% CI 0.39 to 1.15; 2 studies, 416 participants).
“7 Participant level outcomes: 3. Social functioning: homeless by 11 to 12 months | 2 | 416 | Risk Ratio (M-H, Fixed, 95% CI) | 0.67 [0.39, 1.15]”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For court-ordered outpatient commitment compared with entirely voluntary care, number with multiple readmissions by 12 months showed no clear difference (RR 1.87, 95% CI 0.87 to 4.01; 1 study, 152 participants).
“3 Health service outcomes: 3. Number with multiple readmissions by 12 months | 1 | 152 | Risk Ratio (M-H, Fixed, 95% CI) | 1.87 [0.87, 4.01]”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For compulsory community treatment compared with standard care, satisfaction with care (perceived coercion or leverage) at 11 to 12 months did not differ significantly (risk ratio 1.30, 95% CI 0.98 to 1.71; 3 studies, 645 participants; Swartz 1999, Steadman 2001, Burns 2013).
“5 Participant level outcomes: 2. Satisfaction with care: perceived coercion or leverage at 11 to 12 months | 3 | 645 | Risk Ratio (M-H, Fixed, 95% CI) | 1.30 [0.98, 1.71]”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For compulsory community treatment compared with standard care, number with multiple readmissions by 12 months did not differ significantly (risk ratio 1.02, 95% CI 0.31 to 3.33; 2 studies, 485 participants; Burns 2013, Steadman 2001).
“3 Health service outcomes: 3. Number with multiple readmissions by 12 months | 2 | 485 | Risk Ratio (M-H, Random, 95% CI) | 1.02 [0.31, 3.33]”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For compulsory community treatment compared with standard care, global state (GAF) at 12 months did not differ significantly (mean difference -1.36, 95% CI -4.07 to 1.35; 2 studies, 335 participants; Burns 2013, Steadman 2001).
“4 Participant level outcomes: 1. global state: GAF at 12 months | 2 | 335 | Mean Difference (IV, Fixed, 95% CI) | -1.36 [-4.07, 1.35]”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For compulsory community treatment compared with standard care, readmission to hospital by 11 to 12 months did not differ significantly (risk ratio 0.98, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.17; 3 studies, 749 participants; Burns 2013, Steadman 2001, Swartz 1999).
“1 Health service outcomes: 1. Readmission to hospi- tal by 11 to 12 months | 3 | 749 | Risk Ratio (M-H, Fixed, 95% CI) | 0.98 [0.83, 1.17]”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For homelessness by 11 to 12 months, the pooled risk ratio for court-ordered outpatient commitment versus entirely voluntary care was 0.67 (95% CI 0.39 to 1.15; P=0.15).
“| Total (95% CI) | 214 | 202 | | 100% | 0.67[0.39,1.15] |”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For quality of life on the Lehman Quality of Life Scale, the pooled mean difference for court-ordered outpatient commitment versus entirely voluntary care was -0.22 (95% CI -0.95 to 0.5), with substantial heterogeneity (I2=93.04%).
“| Total *** | 207 | | 199 | | | 100% | -0.22[-0.95,0.5] |”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For perceived coercion at 11 to 12 months, the pooled risk ratio for court-ordered outpatient commitment versus entirely voluntary care was 1.36 (95% CI 0.97 to 1.89).
“| Total (95% CI) | 214 | 202 | | 100% | 1.36[0.97,1.89] |”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
For ever arrested or picked up by police for violence against a person by 11 to 12 months, the pooled risk ratio for court-ordered outpatient commitment versus entirely voluntary care was 0.82 (95% CI 0.56 to 1.21; P=0.32).
“| Subtotal (95% CI) | 214 | 202 | | 100% | 0.82[0.56,1.21] |”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
The New York study reported attrition rates of approximately 45% for 11-month outcomes.
“the New York study reported attrition rates of approximately 45% for 11-month outcomes (Steadman 2001)”
From Compulsory community and involuntary outpatient treatment for people with severe mental disorders. (2017) · cites this paper as Steadman 2001
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A systematic review of the views and experiences of subjects of community treatment orders
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- Authors
- Steadman, H. J., Gounis, K., Dennis, D., Hopper, K., Roche, B., Swartz, M., & Robbins, P. C.
- Affiliations
- Policy Research Associates (US)
- Venue
- Psychiatric Services
- Published
- 2001-03
- Volume
- 52
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 330-336
- ISSN
- 0022-1597 (ISSN-L)
- 1075-2730
- 1557-9700
- OpenAlex
- W2096409461
- Cited by
- 312
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 21.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychiatric Services (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Healthcare Decision-Making and Restraints
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychiatric care and mental health services
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Keywords
- involuntary outpatient commitment, court-ordered treatment, mental health services, hospital readmission, arrests, quality of life, treatment non-adherence, perceived coercion, community service providers, pilot program evaluation, New York City
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Coercion, Commitment of Persons with Psychiatric Disorders, Community Mental Health Services, Crime, Female, Hospitals, Psychiatric, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, New York City, Patient Readmission, Pilot Projects, Psychotic Disorders, Quality of Life, Program Evaluation, Treatment Refusal, Outcome Assessment, Health Care
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