Youth social withdrawal behavior (hikikomori): A systematic review of qualitative and quantitative studies
Abstract
Objective Acute and/or severe social withdrawal behavior among youth was seen as a culture-bound psychiatric syndrome in Japan, but more youth social withdrawal cases in different countries have been discovered recently. However, due to the lack of a formal definition and diagnostic tool for youth social withdrawal, cross-cultural observational and intervention studies are limited. We aimed to consolidate existing knowledge in order to understand youth social withdrawal from diverse perspectives and suggest different interventions for different trajectories of youth social withdrawal. Method This review examined the current available scientific information on youth social withdrawal in the academic databases: ProQuest, ScienceDirect, Web of Science and PubMed. We included quantitative and qualitative studies of socially withdrawn youths published in English and academic peer-reviewed journals. Results We synthesized the information into the following categories: (1) definitions of youth social withdrawal, (2) developmental theories, (3) factors associated with youth social withdrawal and (4) interventions for socially withdrawn youths. Accordingly, there are diverse and controversial definitions for youth social withdrawal. Studies of youth social withdrawal are based on models that lead to quite different conclusions. Researchers with an attachment perspective view youth social withdrawal as a negative phenomenon, whereas those who adopt Erikson's developmental theory view i…
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Maladaptive parenting and familial dysfunction are important factors in adolescent hikikomori.
“Further, maladaptive parenting and familial dysfunction are important factors in adolescent hikikomori [49].”
Dysfunctional family relationships have been identified in other countries, including Hong Kong, Spain, Italy, and France.
“Dysfunctional family relationships have been identified in other countries, including Hong Kong, Spain, Italy, and France”
Family factors contribute to hikikomori severity worldwide.
“Although family factors contribute to hikikomori severity worldwide”
Interest-based activities customized to the youth's level of engagement promote positive youth development and social skills in hidden youth.
“According to previous studies, interest-based activities customized to the youth's level of engagement (22, 29) promote positive youth development and social skills (38) in hidden youth.”
CBT-based interventions target youths' negative beliefs such as the belief that they do not fit into society, or the world is against them.
“CBT-based interventions also target youths' negative beliefs such as the belief that they do not fit into society, or the world is against them (29).”
Cites
Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA Statement.
(2009) · PubMed Central · Cited by 44,859 · see citing works
Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & the PRISMA Group* (2009) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00135 · Cited by 37,554 · see citing works
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2009.06.005 · Cited by 19,575 · see citing works
(1968) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 15,136 · see citing works
Erikson, E. H. (2026) · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.18614668 · Cited by 13,081 · see citing works
Anthony, E. J. (1969) · Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0002-7138(09)62239-1 · Cited by 2,539 · see citing works
Bynner, J. M., & Parsons, S. (2002) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1006/jvbe.2001.1868 · Cited by 599 · see citing works
Galderisi, S. (2018) · Giornale italiano di psicopatologia/Journal of psychopathology/Italian journal of psychopathology · Cited by 306 · see citing works
Kato, T. A., Tateno, M., Shinfuku, N., Fujisawa, D., Teo, A. R., Sartorius, N., Akiyama, T., Ishida, T., Choi, T. Y., Balhara, Y. P. S., et al. (2011) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-011-0411-7 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
Koyama, A., Miyake, Y., Kawakami, N., Tsuchiya, M., Tachimori, H., & Takeshima, T. (2010) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.10.019 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Hikikomori, a Japanese Culture-Bound Syndrome of Social Withdrawal?: A Proposal for DSM-5
Teo, A. R., & Gaw, A. C. (2010) · Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0b013e3181e086b1 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
The Japanese Hikikomori Phenomenon: Acute Social Withdrawal among Young People
Furlong, A. (2008) · The Sociological Review · doi:10.1111/j.1467-954x.2008.00790.x · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Teo, A. R., Fetters, M. D., Stufflebam, K., Tateno, M., Balhara, Y., Choi, T. Y., Kanba, S., Mathews, C. A., & Kato, T. A. (2015) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764014535758 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Kondo, N., Sakai, M., Kuroda, Y., Kiyota, Y., Kitabata, Y., & Kurosawa, M. (2013) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764011423611 · Cited by 179 · cited 6× · see citing works
“‘Free space’ (Ogino, 2004), group activities and support groups (Kondo et al., 2013; Nagata et al., 2013) provide opportunities for socially withdrawn youths to socialize with other people.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA New Form of Social Withdrawal in Japan: a Review of Hikikomori
Teo, A. R. (2009) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764008100629 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Wong, P. W. C., Li, T. M. H., Chan, M. K. Y., Law, Y., Chau, M., Cheng, C., Fu, K., Bacon‐Shone, J., & Yip, P. S. F. (2014) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764014543711 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Self-citationLee, Y. S., Lee, J. Y., Choi, T. Y., & Choi, J. T. (2013) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.12043 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Are Japan's hikikomori and depression in young people spreading abroad?
Kato, T. A., Shinfuku, N., Sartorius, N., & Kanba, S. (2011) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(11)61475-x · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Sakamoto, N., Martin, R. G., Kumano, H., Kuboki, T., & Al‐Adawi, S. (2005) · The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine · doi:10.2190/7weq-216d-tvnh-pqj1 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Japan’s Hidden Youths: Mainstreaming the Emotionally Distressed in Japan
Borovoy, A. (2008) · Culture Medicine and Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s11013-008-9106-2 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Hikikomori in Spain: A descriptive study
Malagón, A., Córcoles, D., Martín‐Lopez, L. M., & Pérez, V. (2014) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764014553003 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Unable to Conform, Unwilling to Rebel? Youth, Culture, and Motivation in Globalizing Japan
Toivonen, T., Norasakkunkit, V., & Uchida, Y. (2011) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00207 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Attachment and hikikomori : A psychosocial developmental model
Krieg, A., & Dickie, J. R. (2011) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764011423182 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
An Attachment Perspective on Loneliness
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118427378.ch3 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Social isolation associated with depression: A case report of hikikomori
Teo, A. R. (2012) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764012437128 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Hikikomori as a possible clinical term in psychiatry: a questionnaire survey
Tateno, M., Park, T. W., Kato, T. A., Umene‐Nakano, W., & Saito, T. (2012) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-12-169 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
The phenomenon of “hikikomori” (social withdrawal) and the socio-cultural situation in Japan today
Suwa, M., & Suzuki, K. (2013) · Giornale italiano di psicopatologia/Journal of psychopathology/Italian journal of psychopathology · Cited by 88 · see citing works
tokyo Public health experts concerned about “hikikomori”
Watts, J. (2002) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(02)08186-2 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Social Withdrawal in Japanese Youth
Hattori, Y. (2006) · Journal of Trauma Practice · doi:10.1300/j189v04n03_01 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Japan's ‘Socially Withdrawn Youths’ and Time Constraints in Japanese Society
Kaneko, S. (2006) · Time & Society · doi:10.1177/0961463x06067034 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Nagata, T., Yamada, H., Teo, A., Yoshimura, C., Nakajima, T., & van Vliet, I. V. (2013) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764011423184 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Quality of Life of the Hidden Youth in Hong Kong
Chan, G. H., & Lo, T. W. (2013) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-013-9279-x · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Umeda, M., Kawakami, N., & The World Mental Health Japan Survey Group 2002–2006 (2012) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2011.02292.x · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Family features in primary social withdrawal among young adults
Suwa, M., Suzuki, K., Koichi, H. A. R. A., WATANABE, H., & Takahashi, T. (2003) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1046/j.1440-1819.2003.01172.x · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Youth locked in time and space? Defining features of social withdrawal and practice implications
Wong, V. C. W. (2009) · Journal of Social Work Practice · doi:10.1080/02650530903102692 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Ogino, T. (2004) · International Journal of Japanese Sociology · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6781.2004.00057.x · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Prolonged social withdrawal disorder: A hikikomori case in Spain
Ovejero, S., Caro‐Cañizares, I., de León-Martínez, V., & Baca‐García, E. (2013) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764013504560 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Norasakkunkit, V., & Uchida, Y. (2014) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2014.33.10.918 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Uchida, C. (2010) · PubMed · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Hidden youth services: What Hong Kong can learn from Japan
Chan, G. H.-Y., & Lo, T. W. (2014) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.03.021 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Funakoshi, A., & Miyamoto, Y. (2014) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.12230 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Wong, V. (2012) · International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy · doi:10.1108/01443331211249057 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Coming of Age in America: The Transition to Adulthood in the Twenty-First Century
Staff, J. (2012) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.1177/0094306112468721hh · Cited by 31 · see citing works
A Case Study of a Chinese ‘Hikikomorian’ in Canada - Theorizing the Process of Hikikomorization
Chong, S., & Chan, K.-M. (2012) · Journal of Special Education and Rehabilitation · doi:10.2478/v10215-011-0028-0 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Masataka, N. (2002) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1207/s15566935eed1302_5 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Hikikomori : How Private Isolation Caught the Public Eye
Horiguchi, S. (2012) · doi:10.4324/9780203802076-14 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The Intersection of Culture and Solitude
Teo, A. R., Stufflebam, K., & Kato, T. A. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118427378.ch25 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Chan, G. H., & Lo, T. W. (2014) · Revista de Cercetare si Interventie Sociala · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self and salvation: visions of hikikomori in Japanese manga
Heinze, U., & Thomas, P. (2014) · Contemporary Japan · doi:10.1515/cj-2014-0007 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Family Relationships and the Self-Esteem of Hidden Youth
Chan, G. H., & Lo, T. W. (2014) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x14537479 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Roggman, L. A., & Cardia, N. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-17984-1 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Psychopathology of social isolation
Baek, S.-B. (2014) · Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation · doi:10.12965/jer.140132 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Hikikomania: Existential Horror or National Malaise?
Todd, K. H. L. (2011) · Southeast review of Asian studies · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Rosenthal, B. W., & Zimmerman, D. L. (2012) · International Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.2753/imh0020-7411410406 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Braindance of the Hikikomori: Towards a Return to Speculative Psychoanalysis
Wilson, S. J. (2010) · Paragraph · doi:10.3366/para.2010.0206 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 57 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Social brain, social dysfunction and social withdrawal
Porcelli, S., van der Wee, N. J. A., van der Werff, S. J., Aghajani, M., Glennon, J. C., van Heukelum, S., Mogavero, F., Lobo, A., Olivera, F. J. N., Lobo, E., et al. (2018) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.09.012 · Cited by 397 · see citing works
Tateno, M., Teo, A. R., Ukai, W., Kanazawa, J., Katsuki, R., Kubo, H., & Kato, T. A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00455 · Cited by 372 · see citing works
Ostinelli, E. G., Zangani, C., Giordano, B., Maestri, D., Gambini, O., D’Agostino, A., Furukawa, T. A., & Purgato, M. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.02.014 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Achterbergh, L., Pitman, A., Birken, M., Pearce, E., Sno, H. N., & Johnson, S. (2020) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-020-02818-3 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Development and validation of the 25‐item Hikikomori Questionnaire (HQ‐25)
Teo, A. R., Chen, J. I., Kubo, H., Katsuki, R., Sato‐Kasai, M., Shimokawa, N., Hayakawa, K., Umene‐Nakano, W., Aikens, J. E., Kanba, S., et al. (2018) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.12691 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Internet Addiction, Hikikomori Syndrome, and the Prodromal Phase of Psychosis
Stip, E., Thibault, A., Beauchamp-Chatel, A., & Kisely, S. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00006 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Mitić, M., Woodcock, K. A., Amering, M., Krammer, I., Stiehl, K. A. M., Zehetmayer, S., & Schrank, B. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.589403 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Yong, R., & Nomura, K. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00247 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Stavropoulos, V., Anderson, E. L., Beard, C. L., Latifi, M. Q., Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2018) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2018.10.001 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
A quantitative approach to neuropsychiatry: The why and the how
Kas, M. J., Penninx, B., Sommer, B., Serretti, A., Arango, C., & Marston, H. (2019) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.12.008 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Kato, T. A., Hashimoto, R., Hayakawa, K., Kubo, H., Watabe, M., Teo, A. R., & Kanba, S. (2016) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.12360 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Ngien, A., & Jiang, S. (2021) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2021.1888438 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Pozza, A., Coluccia, A., Kato, T. A., Gaetani, M., & Ferretti, F. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-025213 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Moratorium or waithood? Forms of time-taking and the changing shape of youth
Cuzzocrea, V. (2018) · Time & Society · doi:10.1177/0961463x18763680 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
A 39-Year-Old “Adultolescent”: Understanding Social Withdrawal in Japan
Kato, T. A., Kanba, S., & Teo, A. R. (2016) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15081034 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Hamasaki, Y., Pionnié-Dax, N., Dorard, G., Tajan, N., & Hikida, T. (2021) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-020-01064-8 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Characteristics of socially withdrawn youth in France: A retrospective study
Chauliac, N., Couillet, A., Faivre, S., Brochard, N., & Terra, J. (2017) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764017704474 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Nonaka, S., Takeda, T., & Sakai, M. (2022) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00048674221085917 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Frankova, I. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00558 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Media Use during Adolescence: The Recommendations of the Italian Pediatric Society
Bozzola, E., Spina, G., Ruggiero, M., Vecchio, D., Caruso, C., Bozzola, M., Staiano, A. M., Agostiniani, R., Del Vecchio, A., Banderali, G., et al. (2019) · Italian Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s13052-019-0725-8 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Bowker, J. C., Bowker, M. H., Santo, J. B., Ojo, A. A., Etkin, R. G., & Raja, R. (2019) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2019.1633618 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Malagón, A., Martín‐Lopez, L. M., Córcoles, D., Gonzalez, A. M., Bellsolà, M., Teo, A. R., Pérez, V., Bulbena, A., & Bergé, D. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.03.060 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Rahmani, H., Groot, W., & Rahmani, A. M. (2024) · International Journal of Adolescence and Youth · doi:10.1080/02673843.2024.2331576 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Hikikomori and modern-type depression in Italy: A new phenotypical trans-cultural characterization?
Orsolini, L., Bellagamba, S., Volpe, U., & Kato, T. A. (2022) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640221099408 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Porcelli, S., Kasper, S., Zohar, J., Souery, D., Montgomery, S., Ferentinos, P. P., Rujescu, D., Mendlewicz, J., Pich, E. M., Pollentier, S., et al. (2019) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2019.109835 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Stijelja, S., & Mishara, B. L. (2022) · Sexuality & Culture · doi:10.1007/s12119-022-10031-5 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Wong, M. (2020) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444820912530 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Yong, R. K. F., & Kaneko, Y. (2016) · Open Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.4236/ojpm.2016.61001 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Zhu, S., Lee, P. H., & Wong, P. W. C. (2021) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2021.47 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationLiu, L. L., Li, T. M. H., Teo, A. R., Kato, T. A., & Wong, P. W. C. (2018) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/mental.8509 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychological factors associated with social withdrawal (Hikikomori)
Nonaka, S., & Sakai, M. (2021) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2021.0050 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
A Physical Health Profile of Youths Living with a “Hikikomori” Lifestyle
Yuen, J. W. M., Yan, Y., Wong, V. C. W., Tam, W., So, K.-W., & Chien, W. T. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15020315 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Does hikikomori (severe social withdrawal) exist among young people in urban areas of China?
Wong, P. W. C., Liu, L. L., Li, T. M. H., Kato, T. A., & Teo, A. R. (2017) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2017.10.026 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationEpidemic of Loneliness in a Digital Society: Hikikomori as a Cultural and Psychological Phenomenon
Voiskounsky, A. E., & Солдатова, Г. (2019) · Counseling Psychology and Psychotherapy · doi:10.17759/cpp.2019270303 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Social withdrawal and gender differences: Clinical phenotypes and biological bases
Masi, G., Berloffa, S., Milone, A., & Brovedani, P. (2021) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.24802 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Li, T. M. H., & Wong, P. W. C. (2015) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12440 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationJalonen, H., Kokkola, J., Laihonen, H., Kirjavainen, H., Kaartemo, V., & Vähämaa, M. (2021) · International Journal of Public Sector Management · doi:10.1108/ijpsm-01-2021-0008 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Pereira-Sanchez, V., Álvarez-Mon, M., del Barco, A. A., Álvarez-Mon, M., & Teo, A. (2019) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/14167 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Muris, P., & Ollendick, T. H. (2023) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-023-00425-8 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Hikikomori: A Scientometric Review of 20 Years of Research
Neoh, M. J. Y., Carollo, A., Lim, M., & Esposito, G. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20095657 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Hikikomori in Brazil: 29 years of Voluntary social Withdrawal
Gondim, F. D. A. A., Aragão, A. P. S., Filha, J. G. H., & Messias, E. (2017) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2017.10.009 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Bania, E. V., Eckhoff, C., & Kvernmo, S. E. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023705 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Tan, M. P. J., Lee, W., & Kato, T. A. (2021) · BJPsych International · doi:10.1192/bji.2020.20 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
van der Wee, N. J. A., Bilderbeck, A. C., Cabello, M., Ayuso‐Mateos, J. L., Saris, I. M. J., Giltay, E. J., Penninx, B. W. J. H., Arango, C., Post, A., & Porcelli, S. (2018) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.06.020 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Yung, J. Y. K., Wong, V. C. W., Ho, G. W. K., & Molassiotis, A. (2021) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-021-00605-7 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Hamasaki, Y., Pionnié-Dax, N., Dorard, G., Tajan, N., & Hikida, T. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04116-6 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Wu, A. F.-W., Catmur, C., Wong, P. W. C., & Lau, J. Y. F. (2019) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764019882724 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationEpidemiology of Hikikomori: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of 19 studies
Zhang, W., Chen, M., Feng, Y., Su, Z., Cheung, T. C. C., Jackson, T., Zhang, Q., & Xiang, Y. (2025) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.13768 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Fong, T. C. T., Cheng, Q., Pai, C. Y., Kwan, I., Wong, C. L. H., Cheung, S. H., & YIP, P. S. F. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115774 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Engagement of vulnerable youths using internet platforms
Chan, M. K. Y., Li, T. M. H., Law, Y. W., Wong, P. W. C., Chau, M., Cheng, C., Fu, K., Bacon‐Shone, J., Cheng, Q., & Yip, P. S. F. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0189023 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationDing, N., & Zhang, X. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192416973 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Hikikomori and the COVID-19 pandemic: not leaving behind the socially withdrawn
Roza, T. H., Spritzer, D. T., Gadelha, A., & Passos, I. C. (2020) · Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2020-1145 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Loscalzo, Y., Nannicini, C., Liu, I. H., & Giannini, M. (2020) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764020975800 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Withdrawal experience and possible way-outs from withdrawal behavior in young people
Li, T. M. H., Liu, L., & Wong, P. W. C. (2017) · Qualitative Social Work · doi:10.1177/1473325016688369 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationHihara, S., Kambara, K., Umemura, T., Handa, K., & Sugimura, K. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.897806 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Kubo, H., Katsuki, R., Horie, K., Yamakawa, I., Tateno, M., Shinfuku, N., Sartorius, N., Sakamoto, S., & Kato, T. A. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03446-8 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Muzi, S., Rogier, G., & Pace, C. S. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19074068 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Validation of the German version of the 25‐item hikikomori questionnaire 25
Hajek, A., Teo, A. R., Zwar, L., & König, H. (2024) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.2027 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Kanai, K., Kitamura, Y., Zha, L., Tanaka, K., Ikeda, M., & Sobue, T. (2024) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640241245926 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Multimodal treatment for a Brazilian case of hikikomori
Roza, T. H., Spritzer, D. T., Lovato, L. M., & Passos, I. C. (2020) · Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2020-0804 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Wong, P. W. C., Yu, R. W. M., Li, T. M. H., Lai, S. L. H., Ng, H. Y. H., & Fan, W. T. W. (2019) · Society & Animals · doi:10.1163/15685306-12341462 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationBenarous, X., Guedj, M.-J., Cravero, C., Jakubowicz, B., Brunelle, J., Suzuki, K., & Cohen, D. (2022) · Transcultural Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/13634615221111633 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Yasuma, N., Watanabe, K., Nishi, D., Ishikawa, H., Tachimori, H., Takeshima, T., Umeda, M., & Kawakami, N. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.602678 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Hikikomori Syndrome and Digital Technologies: A Systematic Review
Sales-Filho, G. S., Bandeira, I. D., Argollo, N., & Lucena, R. (2023) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/hrp.0000000000000362 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Funakoshi, A., Saito, M., Yong, R., & Suzuki, M. (2022) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640211009266 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Liew, K., Uchida, Y., Cruz, C. D., & Lee, L. N. (2021) · PSYCHOLOGIA · doi:10.2117/psysoc.2020-a120 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Su, X.-B., Li, T. M. H., & Wong, P. W. C. (2021) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-021-00795-4 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationHikikomori: Social withdrawal a risk factor for depression
Lee, J. I., Parhar, I. S., & Soga, T. (2022) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.13354 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Technology affordances and social withdrawal: The rise of hikikomori
Park, H., & Yap, S. F. (2024) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.21991 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Validation of the Italian version of the 25‐item Hikikomori Questionnaire (HQ‐25‐I)
Fino, E., Iliceto, P., Carcione, A., Giovani, E., & Candilera, G. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23404 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
UnlockingHikikomori: an interdisciplinary approach
Berman, N., & Rizzo, F. (2018) · Journal of Youth Studies · doi:10.1080/13676261.2018.1544416 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Relationship Between Social Withdrawal (Hikikomori), Personality, and Coping in an Adult Population
Bonnaire, C., & Roignot, Z. (2023) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2023.0099 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Association between hikikomori (social withdrawal) and depression in Korean young adults
Park, S. M., Joo, M. J., Lim, J. H., Jang, S., Park, E., & Ha, M. J. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.03.125 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Smart Parenting dalam Mengatasi Social Withdrawal pada Anak di Pondok Pesantren
Baharun, H., & Jennah, M. (2019) · Ta allum Jurnal Pendidikan Islam · doi:10.21274/taalum.2019.7.1.45-72 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Li, X.-K., Zhan, P.-S., Chen, S.-D., & Ren, J. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18147700 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Hikikomori: debating a XXI century phenomenon from a clinical point of view
Ranieri, F., & Luccherino, L. (2018) · Scandinavian Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.21307/sjcapp-2018-002 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Sensitivity and Attachment in an Italian Sample of Hikikomori Adolescents and Young Adults
Santona, A. M. R., Lionetti, F., Tognasso, G., Fusco, C., Maccagnano, G., Barreca, D., & Gorla, L. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20126148 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Sulla, F., Masi, A., Renati, R., Bonfiglio, N. S., & Rollo, D. (2020) · IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA) · doi:10.1109/memea49120.2020.9137320 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy for Hikikomori Young Adults and Adolescents
Ranieri, F. (2018) · British Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1111/bjp.12398 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
The Hikikomori Phenomenon: Could Loneliness Be a Choice of Self-Restriction from Society?
Castelpietra, G., Nicotra, A., & Leo, D. D. (2021) · Open Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4236/ojpsych.2021.111005 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Problem gambling during Covid-19
Frisone, F., Alibrandi, A., & Settineri, S. (2020) · Mediterranean Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.6092/2282-1619/mjcp-2457 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Seeman, M. V. (2016) · Psychosis · doi:10.1080/17522439.2016.1264992 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Gaming alone: Videogaming and sociopolitical attitudes
Bačovský, P. (2020) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444820910418 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The Role of Alexithymia in Social Withdrawal during Adolescence: A Case–Control Study
Iannattone, S., Miscioscia, M., Raffagnato, A., & Gatta, M. (2021) · Children · doi:10.3390/children8020165 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Zhou, F., Huang, P., Wei, X.-L., Guo, Y., Lu, J., Feng, L., Lu, M., Liu, X., Tu, S., Déprez, A., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.537411 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Wet Beriberi Associated with Hikikomori Syndrome
Tanabe, N., Hiraoka, E., Kataoka, J., Naito, T., Matsumoto, K., Arai, J., & Norisue, Y. (2017) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-017-4208-6 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Loneliness in modern world: A case study of Hikikomori from Turkey (eng)
Kaşak, M., Hacıosmanoğlu, C. D., Hesapçıoğlu, S. T., & Ceylan, M. F. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.5505/kpd.2022.59265 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Bellini, B., Perrotti, G., Gambolò, L., Baglioni, V., Faedda, N., Natalucci, G., Pezzuti, L., Ardizzone, I., & Guidetti, V. (2023) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-023-01513-0 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Nonaka, S., Shimada, H., & Sakai, M. (2020) · Japanese Psychological Research · doi:10.1111/jpr.12273 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Ayoub, M., Udo, C., & Randell, E. (2021) · Nordic Social Work Research · doi:10.1080/2156857x.2021.1946710 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Înoue, S., Kato, T., & Yorifuji, T. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15102309 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Social withdrawal and testosterone levels in early adolescent boys
Hayashi, N., Ando, S., Jinde, S., Fujikawa, S., Okada, N., Toriyama, R., Masaoka, M., Sugiyama, H., Shirakawa, T., Yagi, T., et al. (2020) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104596 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Валидизация и опыт применения русскоязычной версии опросника хикикомори (HQ-25)
Lyakina, Y. S., Fedorov, A. A., & Teo, A. R. (2023) · Психология Журнал Высшей школы экономики · doi:10.17323/1813-8918-2023-2-257-281 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Cerbara, L., Ciancimino, G., Corsetti, G., & Tintori, A. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-84187-5 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Seclusion in adolescents with IGD: New diagnostic criteria or measure of severity?
Matalí, J. L., Pérez-Racana, A., Oberst, U. E., de Frutos, M. L., Panisello, P. B., & Flores, E. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106394 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Modern faces of social ostracism: ghosting, orbiting, phubbing, cancel culture
Boykina, E. E. (2022) · Journal of Modern Foreign Psychology · doi:10.17759/jmfp.2022110212 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Alcohol, Young Adults and the New Millennium: Changing Meanings in a Changing Social Climate
Caluzzi, G., & Pennay, A. E. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28607-1_3 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Khiatani, S., Liu, D., Yeo, B. S. S., & Wong, J. C. M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1133659 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Zhan, S., & Guo, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1212426 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Culture-bound syndromes in migratory contexts: the case of Bolivian immigrants
Chicano, M. T. R., Fernández-Rufete, J., Hueso‐Montoro, C., García-López, M. D. M., Rodríguez‐Tello, J., & Flores-Bienert, M. D. (2017) · Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem · doi:10.1590/1518-8345.1982.2915 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
- Authors
- Li, T. M., & Wong, P. W.
- Affiliations
- University of Hong Kong (HK)
- Venue
- Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2015-04-10
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 595-609
- ISSN
- 0004-8674 (ISSN-L)
- 1440-1614
- OpenAlex
- W2127550345
- Cited by
- 188
- References
- 57
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 4.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- The HKU Scholars Hub (University of Hong Kong) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Youth Substance Use and School Attendance
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Youth Education and Societal Dynamics
- Keywords
- hikikomori, developmental theory, attachment theory, Erikson's psychosocial development, risk factors, intervention, cross-cultural comparison, theoretical framework
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Models, Psychological, Social Behavior Disorders, Social Isolation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
