The DOI matches its Crossref record; 64 of the 64 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 53 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Deliver us from Evil: The Effects of Mortality Salience and Reminders of 9/11 on Support for President George W. Bush
Open accessAbstract
According to terror management theory, heightened concerns about mortality should intensify the appeal of charismatic leaders. To assess this idea, we investigated how thoughts about death and the 9/11 terrorist attacks influence Americans’ attitudes toward current U.S. President George W. Bush. Study 1 found that reminding people of their own mortality (mortality salience) increased support for Bush and his counterterrorism policies. Study 2 demonstrated that subliminal exposure to 9/11-related stimuli brought death-related thoughts closer to consciousness. Study 3 showed that reminders of both mortality and 9/11 increased support for Bush. In Study 4, mortality salience led participants to become more favorable toward Bush and voting for him in the upcoming election but less favorable toward Presidential candidate John Kerry and voting for him. Discussion focused on the role of terror management processes in allegiance to charismatic leaders and political decision making.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Across four experiments, reminders of mortality and of 9/11 increased Americans’ support for President George W. Bush and his counterterrorism policies. The findings are framed as evidence that terror management processes shape allegiance to charismatic leaders and political decision making.
Key findings
- Study 1: mortality salience (MS) increased support for Bush versus a television control prime, \(M = 4.16\), \(SE = .145\) vs. \(M = 2.09\), \(SE = .131\), \(F(1, 93) = 112.48\), \(p < .001\), \(\eta^2 = .55\); effects were not mediated by affect.
- Study 2: subliminal 9/11-related primes increased death-thought accessibility relative to a control prime: 911 \(M = 2.07\), \(SD = .80\); WTC \(M = 1.80\), \(SD = 1.15\); control 573 \(M = 1.25\), \(SD = .86\); planned contrast \(t(43) = 2.34\), \(p < .03\), with a marginal overall ANOVA, \(F(2, 43) = 3.03\), \(p < .06\), \(\eta^2 = .12\).
- Study 3: MS and 9/11 salience both increased support for Bush compared with an exam-salience control, \(F(2, 71) = 43.12\), \(p < .001\); 2-versus-1 contrast \(t(72) = 9.31\), \(p < .001\), \(\eta^2 = .55\); priming did not alter political orientation, \(F < 1\).
- Study 4: MS versus intense-pain control increased Bush evaluations and decreased John Kerry evaluations, interaction \(F(1, 149) = 64.00\), \(p < .001\), \(\eta^2 = .30\); Bush evaluations increased under MS, \(t(76) = 7.87\), \(p < .001\), Kerry evaluations declined, \(t(77) = 3.34\), \(p = .001\), and Bush was evaluated more positively than Kerry when mortality was salient, \(t(78) = 3.69\), \(p < .001\); voting-decision item effects were also significant, all \(p\)s < .001.
Methods
- Four experiments with undergraduate samples: Study 1 had 97 Rutgers students in October 2003; Study 2 had 52 University of Missouri–Columbia students, with 46 analyzed, about 1 month after 9/11; Study 3 had 74 Rutgers students in February 2004; Study 4 had 157 Brooklyn College students on May 13, 2004.
- Participants were randomly assigned to mortality-salience, 9/11-salience, or control primes (television, exam, or intense pain), then completed measures of support for Bush, death-thought accessibility, political orientation, and/or evaluations of Bush versus Kerry.
- Main analyses used ANOVA, planned contrasts, ANCOVA, and regression; affect was measured with PANAS-X and tested as a possible mediator.
Limitations
- The paper states that the null findings on political orientation must be interpreted with caution and could reflect insensitivity of the one-item, face-valid measure; it also states that more research with a broader sampling of political orientations is needed for the unexpected political-orientation interaction in Study 3.
- The paper notes that Bush is a multidimensional stimulus, making it difficult to determine precisely which attributes—presidential status, charismatic style, or security/military advocacy—drive the effects.
- Evident from the text: all studies rely on undergraduate convenience samples rather than nationally representative samples; Study 2’s overall ANOVA was only marginal; and Study 1’s PANAS-X included only 32 of 60 items due to an error.
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Claims the paper makes
41 Not checked yet · 33 Own result · 25 Own interpretation · 9 Own method · 6 No basis given
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The second contrast found that although the mean was a bit higher in the 911 condition than in the WTC condition, this difference was not statistically significant, p > .44.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Study 2 demonstrated that subliminal exposure to 9/ 11-related stimuli brought death-related thoughts closer to consciousness.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with previous TMT research demonstrating that MS does not engender affect, there were no significant differences found for these analyses.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“whereas John Kerry's evaluations declined, t (77) = 3.34, p = .001”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“which revealed main effects for mortality salience versus intense pain, F (1, 149) =8.52, p =.004, η 2 =.054”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“participants in the terrorism prime conditions showed greater death-thought accessibility (911 = 2.07, SD = .80; WTC = 1.80, SD =1.15)thanthoseinthecontrolcondition(573= 1.25, SD = .86), t (43) = 2.34, p < .03.”
- Also stated in: § Results and Discussion · p. 7 · boosted
“Study 2 demonstrated that stimuli commonly associated with the 9/11 attacks (911 and WTC) produce an increase in death-thought accessibility, much like previous research has shown subliminal death-related stimuli do (Arndt et al., 1997a).”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Results and Discussion · p. 7 · boosted
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also found an unanticipated significant interaction, β =.74, SE =.07, t =1.96, p =.05.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To ensure that the MS effect reported above was not mediated by affect, we conducted an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with the affect subscale scores (including positive and negative affect) as covariates and the effect of MS remained statistically intact.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Study 1 found that reminding people of their own mortality (mortality salience) increased support for Bush and his counterterrorism policies.”
- Also stated in: § Results and Discussion · p. 5 · plain
“those in the MS condition reported higher support for President Bush ( M = 4.16, SE = .145) than those in the control prime condition ( M = 2.09, SE = .131).”
- Also stated in: § Results and Discussion · p. 5 · plain
“However, the predicted main effect for MS was obtained, F (1, 93) = 112.48, p < .001”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Results and Discussion · p. 5 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also, the effect size is large, η 2 = .55.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 32
- Probably not a substantial claim. 32
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As in Study 1, exam salient control participants were on the disagreement side of the scale, whereas MS and 9/11salient participants were on the agreement side of the scale; there was also a large effect size, η 2 = .55.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and higher ratings of John Kerry ( M = 4.67) than George Bush ( M = 3.83).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was no main effect or interaction for gender, p s > .2.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Study 3 showed that reminders of both mortality and 9/11 increased support for Bush.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with previous TMT research demonstrating that MS does not engender affect, there were no significant differences found for these analyses.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We observed the expected main effects for condition and political orientation, indicating higher approval in the MS and 9/11 conditions and the more conservative the participants were.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Analyses conducted on the individual items making up our composite measure revealed significant effects on all three items, all p s < .01, with MS increasing approval of Bush and his policies on each item.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Study 4, mortality salience led participants to become more favorable toward Bush and voting for him in the upcoming election but less favorable toward Presidential candidate John Kerry and voting for him.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, Study 4 revealed that whereas Kerry was preferred over Bush in the control condition, mortality salient participants preferred Bush over Kerry.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The political orientation measure in Studies 3 and 4 suggests that the increased appeal of President Bush in response to reminders of death or the events of 9/11 was not at all limited to conservative individuals and was not the result of an increase in political conservatism.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The one-item political orientation measure is face valid.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A 2 (MS vs. pain) × 2 (Bush vs. Kerry) × 2 (gender) ANOVA revealed no effects on political orientation”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This model posits that conscious contemplation of mortality first arouses direct threat-focused proximal defenses involving suppression of death-related thoughts or pushing the problem of deathinto the distant future by denying one's vulnerability to various risk factors (e.g., promising to get more exercise).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pyszczynski et al. (1999)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“TMT posits that popular support for leaders is partly the result of the need to allay a deeply rooted fear of death.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Once death-related thought is no longer in consciousness, distal symbolic terror management defenses, which serve to bolster faith in the meaningful worldview and one's sense of self-worth, are activated to manage the potential for anxiety engendered by heightened accessibility of implicit death-related thought.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pyszczynski et al. (1999)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The most prominent line of empirical support for TMT comes from tests of the mortality salience (MS) hypothesis, which states that if the cultural worldview functions to provide protection against death-related concerns, then reminders of death should intensify efforts to bolster and defend faith in the worldview.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Greenberg, Solomon, & Pyszczynski, 1997
- Not checked yetcites Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, in press
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“TMTposits that terror management defenses are ultimately concerned with the implicit knowledge of death rather than with consciously experienced terror per se (see Greenberg et al., 2003).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Greenberg et al., 2003
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to TMT, people are motivated to conceive of themselves as valued participants in a cosmically significant cultural scheme rather than physical creatures subject to decay and death.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Research also has shown that effects parallel to MS are not produced by heightened self-awareness, the salience of cultural values, meaninglessness, or high cognitive load (e.g., Greenberg et al., 1995).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Greenberg et al., 1995
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Initial empirical support for this point was provided by Cohen, Solomon, Maxfield, Pyszczynski, and Greenberg's (in press) finding that reminders of mortality increase support for charismatic leaders in a hypothetical election scenario.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen, Solomon, Maxfield, Pyszczynski, and Greenberg's (in press)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Once these defenses have been employed, deaththought accessibility dissipates back to baseline level.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pyszczynski et al. (1999)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Terror management theory (TMT) (Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986; Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 1991) posits that one of the most basic functions that leaders serve is that of helping people manage a deeply rooted fear of death that is inherent in the human condition.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986
- Not checked yetcites Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 1991
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“From this perspective, many symbolic defenses in response to 9/11 represent efforts to reaffirm the integrity and absolute validity of the American worldview in response to increased accessibility of implicit death-related thoughts (see also Miller & Landau, in press).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Miller & Landau, in press
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“From this perspective, President Bush's appeal may lie in his image as a protective shield against death, armed with high-tech weaponry, patriotic rhetoric, and the resolute invocation of doing God's will to 'rid the world of evil' (Purdum, 2001, p. 2; see also Carney & Dickerson, 2001).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Purdum, 2001
- Not checked yetcites Carney & Dickerson, 2001
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For example, increases in death-thought accessibility have been shown to follow explicit reminders of one's physical nature (Goldenberg, Cox, Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Solomon, 2002), salient threats to a close relationship (Mikulincer, Florian, & Hirschberger, 2003), and confrontations with events that violate the belief in a just world (Landau et al., in press).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Goldenberg, Cox, Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Solomon, 2002
- Not checked yetcites Mikulincer, Florian, & Hirschberger, 2003
- Not checked yetcites Landau et al., in press
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, we know of no direct experimental evidence that terrorism-related events parallel the effect of MS primes in increasing death-thought accessibility or that 9/11-related thoughts play a role in increased attraction to a leader.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Other research has found that threats to terror management defenses increase death-thought accessibility, whereas strengthening those defenses tends to reduce it (Arndt, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski, & Simon, 1997).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Arndt, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski, & Simon, 1997
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Becker (1971, 1973, 1975) proposed that over the course of socialization, the primary sources of psychological security, those entities that sustain the sense of life as meaningful and one's self as significant, shift from one's parents to the culture and its figures of power, authority, and righteousness.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Becker, 1971, 1973, 1975
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that these inductions enhanced affection for President Bush without altering political orientation per se.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Finally, Arndt, Greenberg, and Cook (2002) found that subliminal death primes (and explicit MS treatments after a delay) can increase the accessibility of nationalistic cognitions.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Arndt, Greenberg, and Cook (2002)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We have proposed that through his charismatic leadership style, President Bush represents a protective authority capable of assuaging existential concerns.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Ofmostdirect relevance for present purposes, Cohen et al. (in press) recently demonstrated that MS enhanced the appeal of a charismatic leader who promotes a grand vision and promises citizens a significant role in a noble mission in a hypothetical election sce-”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen et al. (in press)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In concert, these threats should encourage bolstering of Americans' faith in the symbolic structures that constitute the dominant cultural worldview.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Investing faith in the leader of that scheme to assure symbolic prosperity facilitates the maintenance of this buffer.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results support the hypotheses that MS and a reminder of 9/11 would both increase the appeal of President Bush regardless of political orientation.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but it is important to keep in mind that both MS and 9/11 significantly increased the appeal of President Bush for our conservative and liberal participants.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Furthermore, subliminal death stimuli led to an immediate increase in worldview defense (increased preference for a pro-American essay and its author as opposed to an anti-American author), whereas previous research has shown that supraliminal death stimuli produce increased death accessibility and worldview defense only after a delay and distraction.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One hundred and fifty-seven students at Brooklyn College (95 women, 62 men) were randomly assigned to conditions in a 2 (mortality salient vs. intense pain salient control) × 2 (evaluate George W. Bush vs. evaluate John Kerry) design.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“participants were randomly assigned to an MS, exam salience, or terrorism prime condition.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results in conjunction with Figure 2 suggest that MS increased approval of Bush similarly for liberals and conservatives but that the terrorism prime had a stronger effect on liberals, such that in that condition, political orientation was a negligible predictor, and significantly less predictive of approval of Bush than it was in the exam control condition.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Based on these affinities, Pyszczynski et al. proposed that symbolic responses to 9/11 are the product of a potent doublebarreled threat posed by the events: vivid and unceasing depictions of death and destruction compounded by a massive threat to America's sense of military and financial power and moral righteousness.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pyszczynski et al. (2003)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Becker (1975) viewed secular leaders as representing not only rational, objective policy makers but, similar to their religious counterparts, assuming the role of 'death-dealer and death-defier' (p. 42)-the embodiments of invulnerability and symbolic supremacy”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Becker, 1975
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“In this vein, Pyszczynski et al. (2003) recently portrayed the events of 9/11 as a 'natural' MS induction and discussed how many of the symbolic defenses prompted by 9/11 (e.g., veneration for culturally sacred objects, such as flags) paralleled those found in response to MS inductions used in terror management research.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pyszczynski et al. (2003)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The appeal of the leader lies in his or her perceived ability to both literally and symbolically deliver the people from illness, calamity, chaos, and death as well as to demonstrate the supremacy of the worldview.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results of the primary analyses remainedstatistically unaffected.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that the MS induction influenced evaluations of Bush and Kerry without altering political orientation per se.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One is his status as the president of the country. This position makes him the person most representative of the United States at the current time.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Second, President Bush has certain elements of a charismatic style: He appears highly self-confident and certain of his views (Feldmann, 2004), appeals to patriotism, and emphasizes the positive qualities of America and being American and the central role of the United States in triumphing over evil and defending freedom.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Feldmann, 2004
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fact that MS decreased the appeal of Kerry in Study 4 suggests that there is something specific about President George W. Bush that makes him especially useful for terror management purposes.”
hedgeddirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Beyond comparing Bush to Kerry, the use of straightforward approval questions rather than agreement with an elaborate message provides direct evidence of the effect of MS on favorability of President Bush.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Cohen et al. (in press) found that MS increases preference for a hypothetical candidate who embodies precisely this style”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen et al. (in press)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“research both in (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000) and outside the laboratory (Piliavin, Rodin, & Piliavin, 1969; Sherif, 1966; Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood, & Sherif, 1961) has shown that facing or even anticipating (Darley & Morris, 1975) a common enemy or threat can activate superordinate identities and increase ingroup solidarity.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000
- Not checked yetcites Piliavin, Rodin, & Piliavin, 1969
- Not checked yetcites Sherif, 1966
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fact that reminders of death and the events of 9/11 enhanced support for President Bush in the present studies may not bode well for the philosophical democratic ideal that political preferences are the result of rational choice based on an informed understanding of the relevant issues.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results indicate that MS intensified support for President Bush and reduced support for Kerry regardless of political orientation.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This was rectified for Studies 3 and 4 with the same results as obtained in this study.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If MS increases pro-U.S. sentiment in Americans, as a considerable body of evidence indicates, positive responses toward the president also are likely to be increased.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By showing that reminders of both death and the 9/11 terrorist attacks increase support for President Bush and that even very subtle reminders of 9/11 increase the accessibility of death-related thoughts, the present research provides clear support for this TMT analysis.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present findings support the views of many theorists (e.g., Becker; Freud, 1921/1965; Fromm, 1941; Lifton, 1968; Lipman-Bluemen, 1996; Weber) and researchers (Bord, 1975; Ehrhart & Klein, 2001; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1996; Pillai, 1996) who have noted that political allegiances are not always based on the balanced, rational forces of self-interest suggested by the Jeffersonian notion of”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In addition, in Cohen et al. (in press), the descriptions of the hypothetical candidates did not imply anything about their political orientation, making it unlikely that the MS-induced increase in preference for the charismatic candidate reflected a conservative shift.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen et al. (in press)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results suggest that MS does not heighten affection for anyone associated with U.S. leadership, but Bush in particular.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, all participants in Studies 1 and 3 were exposed to a paragraph that made explicit mention of 9/11 and future terrorist threats, so the common enemy theme was prominent in all conditions of bothstudies, yet MS participants showed the highest support for Bush.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Humans share with all animals a fundamental orientation toward continued survival, along with many of the same biological and psychological systems designed for self-preservation.
“TMT begins with the assumption that humans share with all animals a fundamental orientation toward continued survival, along with many of the same biological and psychological systems designed for self-preservation.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The cognitive link between 9/11 and death-thought accessibility underlies the effect of reminders of the 9/11 attacks on Americans' approval of President Bush and his policies.
“that we posit to underlie the effect of reminders of the 9/11 attacks on Americans' approval of President Bush and his policies.”
The paper relies on this without support.
911 and WTC are widely associated with the 9/11 terrorist attacks.
“Both 911 (referring to the date) and WTC (World Trade Center) were chosen as the terrorism primes due to their widespread association with the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Issues of national security are a substantial component of the Bush administration's campaign strategy.
“Because issues of national security are a substantial component of the Bush administration's campaign strategy, we then explored the psychological impact of reminders of 9/11.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The one-item political orientation measure is face valid.
“These null findings regarding political orientation must, of course, be interpreted with caution and could reflect insensitivity of the one-item, albeit face valid, measure.”
The paper relies on this without support.
If MS spontaneously activated cognitions associated with 9/11 and terrorism, those cognitions would appear in open-ended responses about death.
“applying this alternative to the MS effects observed in Studies 1, 3, and 4 requires positing that MS spontaneously activated cognitions associated with 9/11 and terrorism. Although possible, this is unlikely because, according to two raters unaware of the purpose, none of the completions of the open-endeditemsaboutdeathinanyofthethreestudies mentioned 9/11, terrorism, war, or violence-related”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Existential awareness of inevitable death, anxiety arising from mortality concerns, and fear associated with the prospect of one's own death enhance system‐justifying beliefs among members of the society (Landau et al., 2004).”
From “The greedy I that gives”—The paradox of egocentrism and altruism: Terror management and system justification perspectives on the interrelationship between mortality salience and charitable donations amid the COVID‐19 pandemic (2022) · cites this paper as Landau et al., 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“mortality that has been primed threatens the valued cultural worldview that underpins defenses against existential angst (see Das et al., 2009; Landau, Solomon, Greenberg, Cohen, Pyszczynski, Arndt, Miller, Ogilvie, & Cook, 2004).”
From An Integrative Terror Management Theory Perspective on Media Effects: A Model and 12 Hypotheses for Research (2016) · cites this paper as Landau et al., 2004
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“In one line of research, death reminders motivated those with low PNS not only to demonstrate more open-mindedness but also to seek novel experiences in an effort to experience a sense of meaning in life.”
From When Death is Good for Life: Considering the Positive Trajectories of Terror Management (2012) · cites this paper as Landau et al., 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Indeed, there is evidence that threats like scarcity and pathogen prevalence are associated with prejudice [32–40].”
From Ecological and cultural factors underlying the global distribution of prejudice (2019) · cites this paper as [40]
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- ConsistentF(1, 93) = 112.48reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F (1, 93) = 112.48, p < .001”
- Consistentχ²(2) < 2.1reported p > .34 · recomputed p = .350
“χ 2 (2, N = 46) < 2.10, p > .34”
- Consistentχ²(10) = 11.42reported p > .32 · recomputed p = .326
“χ 2 (10, N = 46) = 11.42, p > .32”
- ConsistentF(2, 43) = 3.03reported p < .06 · recomputed p = .059
“F (2, 43) = 3.03, p < .06”
- Consistentt(43) = 2.34reported p < .03 · recomputed p = .024
“t (43) = 2.34, p < .03”
- ConsistentF(1, 149) = 8.52reported p = .004 · recomputed p = .004
“F (1, 149) =8.52, p = .004”
- ConsistentF(1, 149) = 8.48reported p = .004 · recomputed p = .004
“F (1, 149) = 8.48, p = .004”
- Consistentt(77) = 3.34reported p = .001 · recomputed p = .001
“t (77) = 3.34, p = .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Results · p. 11
“These analyses revealed only two univariate main effects.”
§ Results · p. 11
“Compared to the pain salience prime, MS led to less attentiveness ( p = .05), less positive mood ( p < .03), and less sadness ( p < .05).”
Citations
Cites
Advances In Experimental Social Psychology
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The Causes and Consequences of a Need for Self-Esteem: A Terror Management Theory
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Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 24
- Aiken, L. S., 1991, Multiple regressions: Testing and interpreting interactions
- Alterman, E., 2004, The book on Bush: How George W. (mis)leads America
- Anonymous, 2004, Imperial hubris: Why the West is losing the war on terrorism
- Arndt, J., Handbook of empirical existential psychology
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- Becker, E., 1973, The denial of death
- Berke, R. L., 2001, The New York Times, 1
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- 10.1002/ejsp.2420250406 · DOI
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- Moore, D. W., 2001, Americans see terrorist attacks as “acts of war.”
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- Sherif, M., 1961, Intergroup cooperation and competition: The Robbers Cave experiment
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- Waldman, P., 2004, Fraud: The strategy behind the Bush lies and why the media didn’t tell
- Watson, D., 1991, The PANAS-X: Preliminary manual for the positive and negative affect schedule-expanded form
Cited by
Sorted by citations
When Corrections Fail: The Persistence of Political Misperceptions
Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2010) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2 · Cited by 3,173
Political Ideology: Its Structure, Functions, and Elective Affinities
Jost, J. T., Federico, C. M., & Napier, J. L. (2009) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163600 · Cited by 2,125
Five Essential Elements of Immediate and Mid–Term Mass Trauma Intervention: Empirical Evidence
Hobfoll, S. E., Watson, P., Bell, C. C., Bryant, R. A., Brymer, M. J., Friedman, M. J., Friedman, M., Gersons, B. P. R., de Jong, J. T. V. M., Layne, C. M., et al. (2007) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1521/psyc.2007.70.4.283 · Cited by 1,751
The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory
Sherman, D. K., & Cohen, G. L. (2006) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38004-5 · Cited by 1,614
The end of the end of ideology.
Jost, J. T. (2006) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.7.651 · Cited by 1,614
The Meaning Maintenance Model: On the Coherence of Social Motivations
Heine, S. J., Proulx, T., & Vohs, K. D. (2006) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1002_1 · Cited by 1,437
The toxic triangle: destructive leaders, susceptible followers, and conducive environments.
Padilla, A., Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R. B. (2007) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.03.001 · Cited by 1,188
Two Decades of Terror Management Theory: A Meta-Analysis of Mortality Salience Research
Burke, B. L., Martens, A., & Faucher, E. H. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868309352321 · Cited by 1,188
Antecedents and Consequences of System-Justifying Ideologies
Jost, J. T., & Hunyady, O. (2005) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00377.x · Cited by 1,063
Ideology: Its Resurgence in Social, Personality, and Political Psychology
Jost, J. T., Nosek, B. A., & Gosling, S. D. (2008) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00070.x · Cited by 976
Personality and Political Attitudes: Relationships across Issue Domains and Political Contexts
Gerber, A. S., Huber, G. A., Doherty, D., Dowling, C. M., & Ha, S. E. (2010) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055410000031 · Cited by 832
Ideological Asymmetries and the Essence of Political Psychology
Jost, J. T. (2017) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12407 · Cited by 764
Jost, J. T., Napier, J. L., Þórisdóttir, H., Gosling, S. D., Palfai, T. P., & Ostafin, B. D. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167207301028 · Cited by 728
On the Precipice of a “Majority-Minority” America
Craig, M. A., & Richeson, J. A. (2014) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797614527113 · Cited by 611
Differences in negativity bias underlie variations in political ideology
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Metadata
- Authors
- Landau, M. J., Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., Cohen, F., Pyszczynski, T., Arndt, J., Miller, C. H., Ogilvie, D. M., & Cook, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Arizona (US)
- Skidmore College (US)
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- University of Colorado Colorado Springs (US)
- University of Missouri (US)
- University of Oklahoma (US)
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2004-09
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1136-1150
- ISSN
- 0146-1672 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-7433
- OpenAlex
- W2129432831
- Semantic Scholar
- 2c392a2ce2f7a874884435bab98cd2b633bbeb99
- Cited by
- 663
- References
- 63
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 48 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 44 · 2013: 28 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 26.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.rutgers.edu
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- Rutgers University Community Repository (Rutgers University) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- SHAREOK (University of Oklahoma; Oklahoma State University; Central Oklahoma University) (submittedVersion)
- Rutgers University Community Repository (Rutgers University) (submittedVersion)
- Rutgers University Community Repository (Rutgers University)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence
- Social Sciences › Anthropology › Death, Funerary Practices, and Mourning
- Keywords
- mortality salience, terror management theory, September 11 attacks, George W. Bush, presidential approval, counterterrorism policy, charismatic leadership, subliminal priming, John Kerry, voting
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Attitude to Death, Female, Humans, Leadership, Male, New York City, Politics, Public Policy, Students, Subliminal Stimulation, United States, September 11 Terrorist Attacks
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