The Future of Artificial Intelligence in Special Education Technology
Open accessAbstract
This manuscript presents a preliminary discussion of Artificial Intelligence (AI) as a disruptive technology with the potential to significantly change special education practices. The article begins with a brief description of the development of AI. The authors recognize our assertions are subjective and require further research. Several references are not peer-reviewed because educational research takes years to conduct, analyze, and disseminate outcomes. In this manuscript, we discuss current software used for writing with students in special education and discuss similarities and differences with AI software. This discussion is followed by questions and examples related to implementation, ethical and policy considerations, and preservice special education teacher preparation. The article concludes with future considerations for how AI will impact the special education technology field.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This article is a preliminary discussion arguing that AI is a disruptive technology with potential to significantly change special education practices, especially writing, ethics, policy, and teacher preparation. The authors are excited but cautious, calling for further research, ethical safeguards, and inclusion of people with disabilities in AI development.
Key findings
- The authors contend AI can act as a cognitive prosthesis and support students with disabilities through tools such as speech-to-text, NLP, chatbots, computer vision, and personalized learning.
- In their writing example, ChatGPT produced a “technically accurate 1000-word essay in 36 seconds” from the same prompt used with the WeGotIT! graphic organizer.
- Ethical concerns include bias, surveillance, autonomy, privacy, and consent; the authors argue IEP teams should discuss AI and that students, educators, and parents should understand data collection, access, and ownership.
- Policy and future directions include calls for open-source AI policy, disclosure of data sources, risk assessment mechanisms, and a slowdown in development cycles to prioritize safety, equity, privacy, ethics, and access for people with disabilities.
Methods
- Design: preliminary discussion/commentary, not an empirical study; the authors state their assertions are subjective and require further research.
- Data/sample: the authors experimented with AI writing software, interviewed a convenience sample of K-12 colleagues, and posed prompts to ChatGPT, including one asking for 10 questions about AI in education and one asking for considerations for preparing future educators.
- Analysis: no systematic analysis is reported; the article synthesizes examples, literature, ethical/policy discussion, and ChatGPT-generated text.
Limitations
- The authors state that their assertions are subjective and require further research, and that several references are not peer-reviewed because educational research takes years to conduct, analyze, and disseminate.
- The text makes evident that this is not an empirical study: there is no controlled sample, intervention, or outcome data, and the authors repeatedly note they have more questions than answers.
- The K-12 colleague input came from a convenience sample, and several examples rely on ChatGPT outputs or popular-press reactions rather than systematic evidence.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
9 of 32 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
AI can be used to support students with disabilities in a variety of ways.
“Artificial intelligence can be used to support students with disabilities in a variety of ways (Barua et al., 2022).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Barua et al., 2022 source
- Premisecitation
The use of AI can make tutoring more efficient by providing personalized content that matches the learner's ability.
“The use of AI can make tutoring more efficient by providing personalized content that matches the learner's ability (Bhutoria, 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Bhutoria, 2022 source
- Premisecitation
AI is increasingly replacing traditional teaching methods of content delivery.
“Artifical intelligence is increasingly replacing traditional teaching methods of content delivery (Popenici & Kerr, 2017).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Popenici & Kerr, 2017 source
In Results and discussion, under “Past lessons, possibilities, and challenges of AI solutions” (page unavailable), the paper says teacherbots handling content delivery are already a disruptive alternative to traditional teaching assistants. It describes traditional information-transmission methods as open to disruption, but does not establish that AI is increasingly replacing those methods in practice. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
ChatGPT has been shown to generate accurate results using given data points and parameters.
“ChatGPT has been shown to generate accurate results using given data points and parameters, which caused fears of its potential to generate predictions that are accurate and comprehensive, often well beyond what can be achieved with existing technologies (Chan, 2022).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Chan, 2022 source
Section 2, “A background to GPT-3 and InstructGPT” (page unavailable), reports gains in the quality, accuracy, and breadth of GPT-3’s generated content and says those gains prompted interest and concern. It does not establish the claim about ChatGPT producing accurate results from given data points and parameters, or the cited sentence’s further claim about accurate, comprehensive predictions beyond existing technologies. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Interpretationcitation
AI has the potential to act as a cognitive prosthesis to assist students with disabilities by providing new opportunities to learn and develop skills.
“Artificial intelligence has the potential to act as a cognitive prosthesis, a construct first identified by Edyburn (2006), to assist students with disabilities by providing new opportunities to learn and develop skills.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Edyburn (2006) source
- Rests on an assumption: AI will continue to emerge and be adopted in K-12 special education.
- Premisecitation
AI-enabled artificial instructors can deliver personalized learning experiences tailored to the needs of individual learners by providing adaptive experiences.
“Furthermore, AI-enabled artificial instructors can deliver personalized learning experiences tailored to the needs of the individual learners by providing adaptive experiences tailored to individual needs (Chen et al., 2020;Devi et al., 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Chen et al., 2020 source
- cites Devi et al., 2022
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
A lack of diversity has been present throughout modern AI's development.
“A lack of diversity has been present throughout modern AI's development (Adams & Khomh, 2020).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Adams & Khomh, 2020 source
- Premisecitation
Students may not adequately understand the implications of AI technology, such as what data the AI system is collecting, how it is being stored, and who has access.
“While AI systems can potentially help students learn more effectively, students may not adequately understand the implications of the technology, such as what data the AI system is collecting, how it is being stored, and who has access (Ali et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ali et al., 2019
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
ChatGPT could be applied to existing datasets that already contain sensitive and confidential information, creating a unique and potentially high risk of unauthorized access and misuse of that data.
“Moreover, ChatGPT could be applied to existing datasets that already contain sensitive and confidential information, creating a unique and potentially high risk of unauthorized access and misuse of that data (Katrak, 2022).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Katrak, 2022 source
- Premisecitation
AI-enabled tools can identify new approaches to personalize learning.
“In addition, AIenabled tools can identify new approaches to personalize learning (Molenaar et al., 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Molenaar et al., 2022
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation
Educators or individuals with disabilities are frequently excluded from the discussion when developers are creating these innovations.
“Unfortunately, educators or individuals with disabilities are frequently excluded from the discussion when developers are creating these innovations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 14
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 28
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAI applications are especially salient for individuals with disabilities, many of whom use assistive technology features such as speech-to-text within smartphones and other technology-enhanced devices to engage with their environment.
“These AI applications are especially salient for individuals with disabilities, many of whom use assistive technology features (e.g., speech-totext) within their smartphones and other technologyenhanced devices to engage with their environment (Fernandez-Batanero et al., 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Fernandez-Batanero et al., 2022 source
The Discussion and conclusions (page not specified in our copy) says that smartphones are used as assistive technology because they offer accessibility features, and that relevant applications can be installed for students with disabilities. It does not identify those applications as AI, give speech-to-text as an example, or establish the claim for individuals with disabilities beyond the students studied. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAI tools using NLP can alleviate the need for reinforcement from adults while helping increase self-regulation skills.
“These types of AI tools using NLP can alleviate the need for reinforcement from adults, while helping increase self-regulation skills (Hughes et al., 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Hughes et al., 2022 source
The Introduction (section 1) says the AI companion is intended to support students’ self-regulation instead of requiring constant monitoring by a teacher or instructional assistant. But the paper does not establish this as an achieved effect of an NLP tool: section 4.2.3 says the classroom phase still uses a human in the loop and its language patterns have yet to be analyzed for fully AI-driven behavior. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAI systems have the potential to collect and analyze student data such as academic performance, learning preferences, and social interactions; this multi-modal data can provide personalized instruction leading to increased student engagement while improving academic performance.
“AI systems have the potential to collect and analyze student data, such as academic performance, learning preferences, and social interactions.This multi-modal data can provide personalized instruction leading to increased student engagement while improving academic performance (Liao & Wu, 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Liao & Wu, 2022 source
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationChatGPT could be used to gain insight into an individual's behavior, opinions, and activities, leading to manipulation and unethical exploitation.
“For example, the technology could be used to gain insight into an individual's behavior, opinions, and activities, leading to manipulation and unethical exploitation (Illia et al., 2022;Gibney, 2022).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites Illia et al., 2022 source
Section 2.1 (page unavailable) says AI agents learn patterns from user-generated data and describes the collection and exploitation of information from users’ digital activities. Section 4 (page unavailable) says accumulated personal information could enable AI agents to mislead individuals. The paper discusses GPT-3 and AI agents, but does not specifically say ChatGPT can infer an individual’s behavior, opinions, and activities. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Gibney, 2022 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationIn a systematic review of AI literature in education, tools reviewed included intelligent tutoring, machine learning, language processing, robotics, data mining, and deep learning.
“In a systematic review of the AI literature in education, tools reviewed included intelligent tutoring, machine learning, language processing, robotics, data mining, and deep learning (Zafari et al., 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Zafari et al., 2022 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingown dataThe AI software produced a technically accurate 1000-word essay in 36 seconds.
“The AI software produced a technically accurate 1000-word essay in 36 seconds (See Figure 4).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingnone givenThe National Science and Technology Council (2022) publication 'The Networking and information technology R&D Program and the National Artificial Intelligence Office Supplement to the President's FY 2023 Budget' does not have any representation from the Department of Education and any representation of people with disabilities is not disclosed.
“For example, The National Science and Technology Council (2022) publication, “The Networking and information technology R&D Program and the National Artificial Intelligence Office Supplement to the President's FY 2023 Budget” does not have any representation from the Department of Education and any representation of people with disabilities is not disclosed.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites National Science and Technology Council (2022)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThe application of AI during writing instruction can enhance both output and outcomes during the writing process.
“The application of AI during writing instruction can enhance both output and outcomes during the writing process.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: AI will continue to emerge and be adopted in K-12 special education.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAI has the potential to amplify, complement, and enhance the cognitive potential of learners with disabilities, providing an adaptable tool to overcome diverse challenges across formal and informal learning environments.
“Artificial intelligence has the potential to amplify, complement, and enhance the cognitive potential of learners with disabilities, providing an adaptable tool to overcome diverse challenges across formal and informal learning environments (van Boxtel, 2018).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites van Boxtel, 2018
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAI-enabled chatbots can respond to simple student queries, freeing up teachers and educational assistants to focus on increasingly complex student needs.
“For example, AI-enabled chatbots can respond to simple student queries, freeing up teachers and educational assistants to focus on increasingly complex student needs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenSingle point and generative AI are disruptive technologies with the potential to alter and enhance the performance of students with disabilities across all subject areas.
“We contend single point and generative AI are disruptive technologies with the potential to alter and enhance the performance of students with disabilities across all subject areas, from the performance arts to English, history, math, and science.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: AI will continue to emerge and be adopted in K-12 special education.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationNatural language processing (NLP) could be considered a natural extension of the speech-to-text assistive technology students with disabilities have been using for writing tasks for decades.
“For example, one increasingly popular use of AI is natural language processing (NLP), which could be considered a natural extension of the speech-to-text assistive technology students with disabilities have been using for writing tasks for decades (Ok et al., 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ok et al., 2022
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAI-enabled computer vision systems can detect a variety of physical behaviors, including emotional expressions and gestures, which can be beneficial for students with autism or emotional impairments.
“Artificial intelligenceenabled computer vision systems can detect a variety of physical behaviors, including emotional expressions and gestures, which can be beneficial for students with autism or emotional impairments (Asthana & Gupta, 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Asthana & Gupta, 2019
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningThis type of AI tool can be life changing for people with disabilities, much like standardized accessibility features found on the Internet meeting W3C standards today.
“This type of tool can be life changing for people with disabilities much like standardized accessibility features found on the Internet meeting W3C (http://www.w3.org) standards today.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: AI will continue to emerge and be adopted in K-12 special education.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe codebase and algorithmic design of ChatGPT have been used in many applications related to data analytics.
“the codebase and algorithmic design of ChatGPT (2023) have been used in many applications related to data analytics (Dale, 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Dale, 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe concerns with AI are following the trends anticipated by authors who considered the future of these technologies in special education.
“The concerns with AI are following the trends anticipated by authors who considered the future of these technologies in special education (e.g., Basham et al., 2020a;Basham et al., 2020b).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Basham et al., 2020a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Basham et al., 2020b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationMachine learning can provide personalized writing and grading systems involving handwritten tests.
“It can provide personalized writing and grading systems involving handwritten tests (Gaillat et al., 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gaillat et al., 2022
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenIf a class of 30 submits the same prompt for writing, the AI-enabled tool will produce similar, but not identical, output for all of them.
“If a class of 30 submits the same prompt for writing, the AIenabled tool will produce similar, but not identical, output for all of them.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: AI will continue to emerge and be adopted in K-12 special education.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationKranzberg's historical laws seem to still stand true.
“For those of who have studied the role of technology in education and society, the historical laws of Kranzberg seem to still stand true (Pitt et al., 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Pitt et al., 2021 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationTechnological disruptions such as ChatGPT can make the world easier to navigate by reducing cognitive load associated with complex tasks such as gathering, evaluating, and summarizing copious amounts of research.
“Technological disruptions such as ChatGPT can make the world easier to navigate by reducing cognitive load associated with complex tasks such as gathering, evaluating, and summarizing copious amounts of research (Mayer, 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Mayer, 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationCognitive agents and AI assistants are particularly relevant as special education teacher shortages and inadequate pay continue to plague the profession, resulting in unmanageable caseloads and underserved students.
“These cognitive agents and AI assistants are particularly relevant as special education teacher shortages and inadequate pay continue to plague the profession, resulting in unmanageable caseloads and underserved students (Billingsley & Bettini, 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Billingsley & Bettini, 2019 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningTechnologies hold promise and even untapped potential to assist students with disabilities, to increase access, and to impact student achievement.
“Technologies hold promise and even untapped potential to assist students with disabilities, to increase access, and to impact student achievement.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenAI technologies such as robotic teachers, interactive learning platforms, and intelligent tutoring systems help students with disabilities learn more efficiently.
“AI technologies such as robotic teachers, interactive learning platforms, and intelligent tutoring systems help students with disabilities learn more efficiently.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: AI will continue to emerge and be adopted in K-12 special education.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationBLOOM was released as a collaboration of hundreds of researchers for an open-source response to OpenAI and similar movements.
“Recently, Big Science Large Open science Open access Multilingual Language Model (BLOOM) was released as a collaboration of hundreds of researchers for an open-source response to OpenAI and similar movements (Gibney, 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gibney, 2022 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAI provides more efficient search results on websites to aid assessment and grading.
“For example, AI provides more efficient search results on websites to aid assessment and grading (Tomić et al., 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tomić et al., 2022 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAI provided dashboards tailored for administrators, special education teachers, and parents for better monitoring of student performance.
“Artificial Intelligence also provided dashboards tailored for administrators, special education teachers, and parents for better monitoring of student performance (Aleven et al., 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Aleven et al., 2022 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningChatGPT changes the type of analysis that could be used, the kind of feedback produced, and how the student could improve.
“ChatGPT changes the type of analysis that could be used, the kind of feedback produced, and how the student could improve.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: AI will continue to emerge and be adopted in K-12 special education.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningUsing AI, teachers can provide students with options in their approach because a linear progression during writing is no longer necessary.
“Using AI, teachers can provide students with options in their approach because a linear progression during writing is no longer necessary.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: AI will continue to emerge and be adopted in K-12 special education.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThe impact of AI for teaching a student with a disability to write versus how it might be used to scaffold creative thinking is unknown at the time of this publication.
“The impact of AI for teaching a student with a disability to write verses how it might be used to scaffold creative thinking is unknown at the time of this publication.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningWe have not yet begun to examine the impact of this disruptive technology.
“We have not yet begun to examine the impact of this disruptive technology.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: AI will continue to emerge and be adopted in K-12 special education.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningWhen these tools are developed by a select group of people with similar backgrounds and histories, the result is serious limitations in who can and will benefit from these tools.
“However, when these tools are developed by a select group of people with similar backgrounds and histories the result is serious limitations in who can and will benefit from these tools.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The current world of AI development is filled with graduates from many of the same universities and backgrounds.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThe sheer accuracy of ChatGPT's predictive capabilities has created a serious challenge for policy lobbyists and legislators.
“The sheer accuracy of ChatGPT's predictive capabilities has created a serious challenge for policy lobbyists and legislators.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenSome AI systems are designed to analyze and detect patterns in student data, which can lead to bias and limit perceptions of student performance.
“Furthermore, some AI systems are designed to analyze and detect patterns in student data, which can lead to bias and limit perceptions of student performance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenComprehension of the benefits and limitations of AI will only occur when research examines the implementation protocols and outcomes thoroughly.
“However, comprehension of the benefits and limitations of AI will only occur when research examines the implementation protocols and outcomes thoroughly.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: AI will continue to emerge and be adopted in K-12 special education.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenEthical issues could be exacerbated by disclosing a disability.
“Ethical issues could be exacerbated by disclosing a disability.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationDuring October 2022, the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy developed a blueprint for an AI bill of rights.
“During October 2022, the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy developed a blueprint for an AI bill of rights (White House, 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites White House, 2022
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
The paper relies on this without support.
The historical analogies to the calculator, computer, automobile, and Internet are valid guides for anticipating AI's impact on special education.
“Interestingly, these reactions mirror what occurred with the introduction of the calculator and the computer.”
The paper relies on this without support.
AI will continue to emerge and be adopted in K-12 special education.
“Understanding how AI can be leveraged during the learning process is crucial as AI continues to emerge in the field of special education.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most Large Language Models such as ChatGPT are developed by resource-rich organizations and are frequently kept from the public for intellectual property protection reasons.
“Most Large Language Models such as ChatGPT are developed by resource-rich organizations and are frequently kept from the public for intellectual property protection reasons.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The current world of AI development is filled with graduates from many of the same universities and backgrounds.
“The current world of AI development is filled with graduates from many of the same universities and backgrounds.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most investors and companies are seeking rapid iterative development.
“Most investors and companies are seeking rapid iterative development.”
The paper relies on this without support.
When delivering return on investment takes precedence, developers are under constant pressure to deliver 'brand new, shiny products and services' on a tight schedule coordinated with shareholder meetings.
“When delivering return on investment takes precedence, developers are under constant pressure to deliver “brand new, shiny products and services” on a tight schedule coordinated with shareholder meetings.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Currently no incentive exists to prioritize safety, equity, privacy, and ethical concerns and access for people with disabilities, over rapid development cycles.
“Currently no incentive exists to prioritize safety, equity, privacy, and ethical concerns and access for people with disabilities, over rapid development cycles.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
AI tools can create pathways to access for disabled and other students.
“Importantly, AI tools can also create pathways to access for disabled and other students.”
From Evolving intersections: AI, disability, and academic integrity in higher education (2025) · cites this paper as Marino et al. (2023)
AI has transformative potential to support disabled students with daily tasks that may otherwise be difficult due to impairments or injuries.
“Marino et al. (2023) highlighted AI's transformative potential to support disabled students with daily tasks that may otherwise be difficult due to impairments or injuries.”
From Evolving intersections: AI, disability, and academic integrity in higher education (2025) · cites this paper as Marino et al. (2023)
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Budget year differs between the text and its reference
MinorThe text identifies the National Science and Technology Council's 2022 publication as a supplement to the FY 2023 budget, while its reference lists a supplement to the FY2022 budget.
“The National Science and Technology Council (2022) publication, "The Networking and information technology R&D Program and the National Artificial Intelligence Office Supplement to the President's FY 2023 Budget"”
“National Science and Technology Council. (2022). Supplement to the President's FY2022 Budget.”
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“However, when introducing AI into classrooms, ethical implications associated with the technology are essential considerations (Dwivedi et al., 2021).”
Artificial Intelligence in Education: A Review
Chen, L., Chen, P., & Lin, Z. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.2988510 · Cited by 4,133 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Furthermore, AI-enabled arti fi cial instructors can deliver personalized learning experiences tailored to the needs of the individual learners by providing adaptive experiences tailored to individual needs (Chen et al., 2020; Devi et al., 2022).”
Exploring the impact of artificial intelligence on teaching and learning in higher education
Popenici, S. A. D., & Kerr, S. (2017) · Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning · doi:10.1186/s41039-017-0062-8 · Cited by 2,019 · see citing works
The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning
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Artificial intelligence in education: Addressing ethical challenges in K-12 settings
Akgun, S., & Greenhow, C. (2022) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-021-00096-7 · Cited by 1,473 · see citing works
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Engaged to a Robot? The Role of AI in Service
Huang, M.-H., & Rust, R. T. (2021) · Journal of Service Research · doi:10.1177/1094670520902266 · Cited by 1,185 · see citing works
What ChatGPT and generative AI mean for science
Stokel-Walker, C., & Van Noorden, R. (2023) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-023-00340-6 · Cited by 828 · see citing works
Bhutoria, A. (2022) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100068 · Cited by 677 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The use of AI can make tutoring more ef fi cient by providing personalized content that matches the learner ’ s ability (Bhutoria, 2022).”
Special education teacher attrition and retention: A review of the literature
Billingsley, B., & Bettini, E. (2019) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654319862495 · Cited by 503 · see citing works
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The impact of artificial intelligence on human society and bioethics
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Barua, P. D., Vicnesh, J., Gururajan, R., Oh, S. L., Palmer, E., Azizan, M. M., Kadri, N. A., & Acharya, U. R. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19031192 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Assistive technology for the inclusion of students with disabilities: a systematic review
Fernández-Batanero, J. M., Montenegro-Rueda, M., Fernández-Cerero, J., & García-Martínez, I. (2022) · Educational technology research and development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10127-7 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
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“In addition, AI-enabled tools can identify new approaches to personalize learning (Molenaar et al., 2022).”
Australasian Marketing Journal
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Artificial Intelligence Applications in K-12 Education: A Systematic Literature Review
Zafari, M., Bazargani, J. S., Sadeghi-Niaraki, A., & Choi, S.-M. (2022) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2022.3179356 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Advanced Applications of Neural Networks and Artificial Intelligence: A Review
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Ethical implications of text generation in the age of artificial intelligence
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Artificial Intelligence Education Ethical Problems and Solutions
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RAISE: Robotics & AI to improve STEM and social skills for elementary school students
Hughes, C. E., Dieker, L. A., Glavey, E. M., Hines, R. A., Wilkins, I., Ingraham, K., Bukaty, C. A., Ali, K., Shah, S., Murphy, J., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2022.968312 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationSupporting the Writing Process with Technology for Students with Disabilities
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An AI-based Approach for Grading Students’ Collaboration
Tomić, B. B., Kijevčanin, A. D., Ševarac, Z. V., & Jovanović, J. M. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2022.3225432 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
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The Diversity Crisis of Software Engineering for Artificial Intelligence
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A Dashboard to Support Teachers During Students’ Self-paced AI-Supported Problem-Solving Practice
Aleven, V., Blankestijn, J., Lawrence, L., Nagashima, T., & Taatgen, N. (2022) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-16290-9_2 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
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“Arti fi cial intelligence has the potential to act as a cognitive prosthesis, a construct fi rst identi fi ed by Edyburn (2006), to assist students with disabilities by providing new opportunities to learn and develop skills.”
Open-source language AI challenges big tech’s models
Gibney, E. (2022) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-022-01705-z · Cited by 19 · see citing works
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Self-citationThe Role of Language Prediction Models in Contractual Interpretation
Katrak, M. (2022) · Legal Analytics · doi:10.1201/9781003215998-5 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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- Ali S., 2019, International workshop on education in artificial intelligence k-12 (eduai’19), 1
- Asthana P., 2019, International Journal of Management, IT & Engineering, 9, 398
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- Herman D., 2022, The end of high-school English
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- National Science and Technology Council, 2022, Supplement to the President’s FY2022 Budget. Office of science and technology policy
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
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ChatGPT in education: Transforming digital literacy practices
Ciampa, K., Wolfe, Z. M., & Bronstein, B. (2023) · Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy · doi:10.1002/jaal.1310 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Artificial Intelligence: An Untapped Opportunity for Equity and Access in STEM Education
Kohnke, S., & Zaugg, T. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15010068 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Meylani, R. (2024) · Journal of Computer and Education Research · doi:10.18009/jcer.1477709 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Using AI to Support Special Education Teacher Workload
Goldman, S. R., Taylor, J., Carreon, A., & Smith, S. J. (2024) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434241257240 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“…including natural language processors (e.g. predictive text; TextHelp, 2024), machine learning (i.e., Turnitin ’ s Revision Assistant; Nichols et al., 2021), adaptive learning platforms (e.g. Achieve 3000; Murphy, 2019) and generative pre-trained transformers (e.g. ChatGPT; Marino et al., 2023).”
Improving writing feedback for struggling writers: generative AI to the rescue?
Evmenova, A. S., Regan, K., Mergen, R., & Hrisseh, R. (2024) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-024-00965-y · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Its integration is fast growing in all areas of education, including special education (Marino et al., 2023).”
Yang, Y., Chen, L., He, W., Sun, D., & Salas‐Pilco, S. Z. (2024) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-024-00422-0 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“However, the influence of AI on SNS’s writing abilities and creative thinking remains uncertain (Khare et al., 2023; Marino et al., 2023).”
Harnessing the Power of Generative AI to Support ALL Learners
Evmenova, A. S., Borup, J., & Shin, J. K. (2024) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-024-00966-x · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“But as Marino et al. (2023) note, “these reactions mirror what occurred with the introduction of the calculator and the computer” (p. 407).”
InfluentialKelley, M. J., & Wenzel, T. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15060659 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“AI can also further personalize learning (Crompton & Burke, 2023), offering tutoring support, research assistance, and specialized help for students with disabilities (Marino et al., 2023).”
Kumar, S., Gunn, A., Rose, R., Pollard, R., Johnson, M. C., & Ritzhaupt, A. D. (2024) · Online Learning · doi:10.24059/olj.v28i3.4501 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“This aligns with some of the benefits that Marino et al. (2023) envisioned would be possible with AI.”
BackgroundArtificial Intelligence in Special Education
Harkins-Brown, A. R., Carling, L. Z., & Peloff, D. C. (2025) · Encyclopedia · doi:10.3390/encyclopedia5010011 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Additionally, it is important to obtain explicit permission before leveraging AI-driven technologies, particularly in cases where students or parents and guardians have limited knowledge about AI and how it could be used to influence educational decisions [31].”
InfluentialFu, C., Silalahi, A. D. K., Huang, S.-C., Phuong, D. T. T., Eunike, I. J., & Yu, Z.-H. (2024) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2365028 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“However, considering the rapid learning acceleration facilitated by Chat-GPT (Marino et al., 2023), could this not be seen as an advantage for the academic realm, expanding the reach of literature and fostering scholarly discussions?”
Alsolami, A. (2024) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2024.104884 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Waterfield, D. A., Watson, L., & Day, J. (2024) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434241257237 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“The ef fi ciency and precision of decisions made by machines advanced in tandem with the development of faster central processing units and increased random access memory capacity (Marino et al., 2023), including the emergence of generative AI.”
Ho, C. (2025) · Comput. Educ. · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105517 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Goldman, S. R., Carreon, A., & Smith, S. J. (2024) · Journal of Special Education Preparation · doi:10.33043/6zx26bb2 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Artificial Intelligence (AI) is one of the most disruptive technologies in education, with the potential to shift how students with and without disabilities are taught and how general and special education teachers (SETs) are prepared (Marino et al., 2023).”
BackgroundIEPs in the Age of AI: Examining IEP Goals Written with and Without ChatGPT
Waterfield, D. A., Coleman, O. F., Welker, N. P., Kennedy, M. J., McDonald, S. D., & Cook, B. G. (2025) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434251324592 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“More recently, arti fi cial intelligence (AI) has emerged as a promising technology that has the potential to support special education teachers with their heavy workloads (Goldman et al., 2024; Marino et al., 2023; Water fi eld et al., 2024).”
InfluentialAI Tools Like ChatGPT for People with Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Moraiti, I., & Drigas, A. S. (2023) · International Journal of Online and Biomedical Engineering (iJOE) · doi:10.3991/ijoe.v19i16.43399 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
ChatGPT in early childhood STEM education: Can it be an innovative tool to overcome challenges?
Uğraş, H., & Uğraş, M. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-12960-0 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“This abil - ity includes utilizing external data, learning through training, and achieving specific goals (Guo, 2023; Kasneci et al., 2023; Marino et al., 2023; Montenegro-Rueda et al., 2023).”
Abulibdeh, A. O. (2025) · Sustainable Futures · doi:10.1016/j.sftr.2025.101033 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Hong, H., & Kim, Y. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-12809-6 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“AI tools designed to support comprehension, organization, and application of learning further facilitate individual learning goals for students with learning disabilities (Barua et al., 2022), potentially transforming and enhancing academic performance across various subjects (Marino et al., 2023).”
Charles, K. A., Yousuf, A., Chua, H. C., Matthews, S., Harnett, J., & Hinton, T. (2025) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2025.177508 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Generative AI for Inclusive Special Education
Prabagar, S., Mothkur, R., Swetha, C. B., Kurian, A., Pavithra, K., & Aarthi, S. (2025) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-3745-6.ch008 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
GenAI, Robots, and Inclusive Special Education
Sağdıç, A., Elumar-efe, E., & Sani-Bozkurt, S. (2024) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-1351-0.ch015 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Use of AI to improve the teaching-learning process in children with special abilities
Torres, E. R., Rodríguez, R. C., & Briñez, E. T. (2023) · LatIA · doi:10.62486/latia202321 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Remixing Special Education Practices with Artificial Intelligence: UDL, EBP, and HLPs
McMahon, D. D., & Firestone, J. B. (2024) · Journal of Special Education Preparation · doi:10.33043/3dq2d32d · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“However, the increasing use of AI in education also raises important ethical considerations around data privacy, bias, transparency, and the changing roles of educators (Marino et al., 2023; U.S. Department of Education, 2024).”
BackgroundWang, M., Tlili, A., Khribi, M. K., Lo, C. K., & Huang, R. (2025) · Information Development · doi:10.1177/02666669251335655 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Sakowicz, M., & Hamidi, F. (2025) · American Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.32674/yeyaaq64 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Luo, Y. (2024) · Applied and Computational Engineering · doi:10.54254/2755-2721/64/20241427 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the integration of A/B testing frameworks allows for comparative evaluations of different interface designs in real-world scenarios [9].”
MethodUtepbayeva, A. (2024) · International Journal of Information and Education Technology · doi:10.18178/ijiet.2024.14.7.2119 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“The disclosure of information about disability may aggravate ethical issues [20].”
BackgroundThe potential of Large Language Models for social robots in special education
Voultsiou, E., Vrochidou, Ε., Moussiades, L., & Papakostas, G. A. (2025) · Progress in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1007/s13748-025-00363-2 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Liu, X., Lau, N. M. L., Chuin, A., Leung, W.-K., Ho, A.-T. T., Das, M., Liu, M., & Kwok, C. (2023) · International Symposium of Chinese CHI (Chinese CHI) · doi:10.1145/3629606.3629625 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
AI in Education: A Systematic Literature Review of Emerging Trends, Benefits, and Challenges
Adil, J. J. G. (2025) · Seminars in Medical Writing and Education · doi:10.56294/mw2025795 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Impact of generative AI on educational sector
., & Singh, A. K. (2024) · INTERANTIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT · doi:10.55041/ijsrem30724 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Artificial Intelligence and the Intersectionality of Disability
Dieker, L., & Zaugg, T. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-40858-8_121-1 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationArtificial Intelligence in Higher Education: Examining the AI Policy Landscape at U.S. Institutions
Kim, D., & Wu, J. (2024) · The 25th Annual Conference on Information Technology Education · doi:10.1145/3686852.3687076 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Educational Games and the Potential of AI to Transform Writing Across the Curriculum
Evmenova, A. S., Regan, K. S., Mergen, R. L., & Nawash, R. H. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15050567 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“For example, text-to-speech programs, voice recognition systems, and AI-based tutoring systems provide necessary supports and personalized instruction resulting in new opportunities to learn and develop skills (Marino et al., 2023).”
Seung, Y., & Basham, J. D. (2026) · Learning Disability Quarterly · doi:10.1177/07319487261439132 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationEducational Technology to Support Written Expression: A Systematic Literature Review
Goldman, S. R., Carreon, A., Smith, S. J., & Zimmerman, K. N. (2023) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434231210987 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“As technology to support writing is rapidly changing (Graham, 2022) so to should the focus of research related to the types of educational technologies to support WE, including the potential for arti fi cial intelligence supports (Marino et al., 2023).”
Artificial Intelligence and Literacy Development in K–12 Schools
Maher, D., & Young, K. (2023) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-0205-7.ch004 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Enhancing Special Education Using AI
Scott, L. M., Wilder, T. L., Zaugg, T., & Romualdo, A. (2024) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-5538-1.ch002 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Artificial Intelligence to Support Writing Outcomes for Students With Disabilities
Goldman, S. R., Smith, S. J., & Carreon, A. (2025) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434251326328 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Natural language processing (NLP) models, that is, machine learning that understands, interprets, and can generate human language (Marino et al., 2023) are also often used in classrooms to support teacher and student output and outcomes.”
Seung, Y., Basham, J. D., Kim, T., & Lohoefener, J. (2025) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.70144 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationDodur, H. M. S. (2025) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/ejed.70276 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Rappa, N. A., Nonis, K. P., Tang, K., Cooper, G., Cooper, M. G., & Sims, C. (2026) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.70048 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Ebenbeck, N., & Gebhardt, M. (2024) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434241232117 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“These advancements are particularly pertinent considering the current strides in machine learning and AI in education (Chen et al., 2022; Marino et al., 2023).”
Evolving intersections: AI, disability, and academic integrity in higher education
Jafry, A., & Vorstermans, J. (2025) · New Directions for Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1002/tl.20629 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Eğitimde Yapay Zekâ Çalışmalarında Öğretmenlerin Rolü ve Bakış Açıları
Yurtsever, M., & Yurtsever, G. G. (2025) · Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education · doi:10.30703/cije.1453360 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Naatz, A. J., & Ruppar, A. L. (2025) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434251379800 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“We focus on generative AI due to its emergence as a promising tool for helping special education teachers by providing support in curriculum adaptation, lesson planning, individualized instruction, and accessibility enhancements (Dieker & Zaugg, 2024; Marino et al., 2023).”
InfluentialAI and Lifelong Learning in Developing Countries
Yadav, M., Singh, S. K., Sharma, P., & Hung, T. H. (2024) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-0884-4.ch003 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The Future of Artificial Intelligence in Education 4.0
Polas, M. R. H., Jahanshahi, A. A., Ahamed, B., & Molla, M. O. F. (2023) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-9103-4.ch001 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Goldman, S. R., Carreon, A., & Smith, S. J. (2023) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434231211294 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“There are several categories of AI (generative pre-trained transformers, natural language processors, machine learning, etc.; Marino et al., 2023).”
Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) with AI in Problem-Based Learning
Samsonovich, A. V., Kitsantas, A., Wahidi, S. T., & Dolgikh, A. A. (2024) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-76516-2_34 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Lin, X., Cui, H., & Zhu, X. (2026) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434261435251 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“At the same time, this literature also points to ongoing challenges related to equity, privacy, and teacher preparedness (Howorth et al., 2024; Marino et al., 2023).”
Generative AI in disability-inclusive learning: a bibliometric and systematic literature analysis
C., A. K. U., Lathabai, H. H., Kanjilal, R., Raghu Raman, R., & Nedungadi, P. (2026) · Disability and Rehabilitation Assistive Technology · doi:10.1080/17483107.2026.2653073 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Embracing Artificial Intelligence (AI) Tools to Enrich Special Education Teacher Preparation
Wallace, B. C. S., & Abel, Y. (2024) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-5538-1.ch012 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Jimenez, B., Courtade, G. R., & Fosbinder, J. (2024) · Journal of Special Education Preparation · doi:10.33043/z8c694yb · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“By harnessing the power of AI, we can better equip special educators with the tools and resources (including time) they need to effectively support student learning and achievement (Marino et al., 2023), aligned with research.”
BackgroundEngineering education's Odyssey with ChatGPT: Opportunities, challenges, and theoretical foundations
Munir, M. T., Li, B., Carter, S., & Hussain, S. (2025) · International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Education · doi:10.1177/03064190251337477 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Generative Artificial Intelligence as an Educational Collaborator: A Next-Generation Resource
Ewoldt, K. B., & Flanagan, S. M. (2025) · Teaching Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/00400599251340611 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“AI can reduce time and “increase, effect, automatic processes” (Marino et al., 2023, p. 404) by developing and delivering efficient instruction and other supports for their students with disabilities.”
Kavashev, Z. (2025) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-025-09463-3 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“In the same vein, Marino et al. (2023) emphasized that the implementation of generative AI tools such as ChatGPT implies ethical concerns in terms of developing learners’ awareness of cybersecurity and data privacy in special education teacher preparation programs.”
AI-Driven Learning Analytics for Applied Behavior Analysis Therapy
Wong, C. M. V., Yum, Y. N., & Chan, R. Y.-Y. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2025.3637864 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“AIresearchhasincreasinglyfocusedonapplicationsinspe-cialeducation[40],[41],[42].”
Lawrence, W., Nesbitt, P., & Clay, P. H., Jr. (2024) · International Journal of Arts Humanities & Social Science · doi:10.56734/ijahss.v5n5a6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Tlili, A., Altınay, F., Huang, R., Bozkurt, A., Burgos, D., Shehata, B., Altınay, Z., Wang, H., & Sani-Bozkurt, S. (2024) · Lecture notes in educational technology · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-8638-1_3 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Zhang, L., Carter, R. A., & Lim, S. N. (2025) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434251349405 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“This growing capacity of LLMs provides promising avenues for improving access to general education curricula and creating personalized learning experiences for students with disabilities (SWDs; e.g., Marino et al., 2023).”
Prasetyanto, D., Suhardjanto, D., Probohudono, A. N., et al. (2024) · Journal of Ecohumanism · doi:10.62754/joe.v3i8.5450 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
On the logic of agent’s emotions
Wang, Y., Liu, Z., Liu, T., et al. (2024) · Cognitive Systems Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogsys.2024.101281 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Istiawanto, Y., Hamdi, S., Zafrullah, Z., & Sembiring, Y. K. (2024) · Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA · doi:10.29303/jppipa.v10i12.8650 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Special Education also benefits greatly from these technologies, ensuring all students can learn according to their abilities (Marino et al., 2023).”
The experience of using AI-generated social stories as a behavioral intervention tool for children
Zaklas, N., & Gazit, T. (2026) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2026.105723 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Özel Eğitim Öğretmenlerinin Yapay Zeka Farkındalık Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi
Hocaoğlu, A. Y. (2025) · Journal of Individual Differences in Education · doi:10.47156/jide.1638417 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Yeti̇şensoy, O. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13814-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“5 Results, discussion, limitations, and suggestions”
Aydoğan, A., & Kaptanlar, Y. S. (2026) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-981-96-8898-2_37 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Fu, Y., & Weng, Z. (2026) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2026.105594 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Inclusive Education in the Artificial Intelligence Era
Salhab, R. A. (2024) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-7255-5.ch001 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Mo, D., & Mo, B. (2024) · Applied Mathematics and Nonlinear Sciences · doi:10.2478/amns-2024-3059 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Application of Artificial Intelligence in Classroom: Advantages, Challenges, and Suggestions
Pan, Y. (2024) · Journal of Education Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.54097/zmgq6m15 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Reflections on AI-Augmented Professional Development in Special Education
King, S. A. (2024) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-5538-1.ch016 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Zhang, L., Jackson, H., Yang, S., Qian, X., Carter, R. A., Diliberto, J., & Zhang, J. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5339247/v1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Cunningham, W. F., & Zhang, K. (2024) · Journal of Teacher Education and Lifelong Learning · doi:10.51535/tell.1568767 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Teaching Learning Among Lecturers in Special Education
OLADIMEJIO, O. O., & Ogunwale, O. R. (2025) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-5550-4.ch002 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Integrating Artificial Intelligence into High School STEM through Plant Identification
Limjumroonrat, R., Yasri, P., & Suthichayapipat, A. (2025) · International STEM Education Conference (iSTEM-Ed) · doi:10.1109/istem-ed65612.2025.11129452 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“In special education, deep learning has enabled the creation of personalized assistive technologies that support diverse learning needs [5].”
Allag, I., Manukyan, A., Dinet, J., et al. (2025) · doi:10.1145/3746175.3746205 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Adigun, O. T., Haihambo, C. K., Veii, K., Hengari, J. U., & Simasiku, E. L. (2025) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-7508-3.ch001 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
García, G. Á., Téllez, L. S., Díaz, M. H. R., & Rangel, F. A. H. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16010153 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Furthermore, AI tools also enhance the adaptability of educational technology (Cardona et al., 2023) and assist in research (Marino et al., 2023).”
Addressing the Void of AI Policies in Education for Students With Specific Learning Disabilities
Shin, M., Deniz, F. K., Watson, L., Dieterich, C. A., Ewoldt, K. B., Johnson, F., Kong, J. E., Lee, S. H., & Whitehurst, A. (2026) · Learning Disability Quarterly · doi:10.1177/07319487251412879 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“These tools process and generate natural language and images, enabling dialogue, summarization, and customized explanations and feedback in writing tasks for students with disabilities (Marino et al., 2023).”
Designing and Using Custom Chatbots to Support Students With Disabilities: An Educator’s Guide
Drelick, A. M., Woodfield, C., & Freedman, J. E. (2026) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434261420392 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Generative AI and custom AI tools provide limitless possibilities and advantages within special education (Harkins-Brown et al., 2025; Marino et al., 2023).”
Socio-Educational Impacts of Technology and Media on Youth Behavior and Learning
Ahmad, S. (2025) · VFAST Transactions on Education and Social Sciences · doi:10.21015/vtess.v13i4.2341 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Future of AI in Special Education
Kayyali, M. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-2600-0101-1.ch007 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Liu, X., Cao, T.-T., Kong, Y., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1772998 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1772998 Frontiers in Psychology 10 frontiersin.org effect of empowerment by AI technology on the effectiveness of special education services (Marino et al., 2023; Hussein et al., 2025), the moderating effect of parental involvement has received little empirical examination.”
InfluentialTang, K., Rappa, N. A., Nonis, K. P., et al. (2026) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434261448832 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Berns-Conner, M., Dieker, L., & Roberts, S. K. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1790777 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationArtificial intelligence for engaging neurodiverse learners in K-12 education: a systematic review
Uddın, M. M., Luo, F., & Moon, J. (2026) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2026.2679063 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Retrieval Chatbot to Support Idea Generation in Opinion-Based Persuasive Writing
Evmenova, A. S., Regan, K. S., Lewis, V., & Gafurov, B. S. (2026) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434261456274 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sakowicz, M., & Hamidi, F. (2026) · Universal Access in the Information Society · doi:10.1007/s10209-026-01370-3 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Akemoğlu, Y., Roberts, E. B., & Xiong, J. (2026) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613261470855 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“As a result, the current evidence base offers limited guidance regarding which AI-supported autism interventions demonstrate methodologically sound effects and broader implementation (Marino et al., 2023).”
Direct/Explicit Instruction and Social Constructivist Practices in The Inclusive Classroom
Matthews, A. M. (2024) · in education · doi:10.37119/ojs2024.v29i1.738 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Potapiuk, L. M., & Sasiuk, A. (2024) · Educological discourse · doi:10.28925/2312-5829/2024.4.4 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Navigating the Ethical Frontier
Öztürk, H. İ., Doğuş, M., Şahin, V., Çakmak, M., & Gürses, İ. (2025) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-0122-8.ch011 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Development and application of red cultural education resources based on artificial intelligence
Pei, Y., & Wen, L. (2025) · Journal of Computational Methods in Sciences and Engineering · doi:10.1177/14727978251369636 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
ChatGPT és más nagy nyelvi modellek (LLM-ek) biztonsági kérdései, szervezeti és társadalmi hatásai
Nagy, P. (2024) · Rendvédelem · doi:10.53793/rv.2024.2.1
“Ezek a modellek rengeteg paraméterrel működnek, amelyek a képzési folyamat során finomodnak, hogy hatékonyan illeszkedjenek a nyelv komplex mintáihoz és szerkezeteihez (Marino et al. 2023).”
Ithriyah, S., & Meilana, S. F. (2025) · ISLAMIKA · doi:10.36088/islamika.v7i1.5561
“By addressing infrastructure challenges, teacher readiness, and parent involvement, this technology has the potential to be a very effective tool to improve the quality of education in Indonesia.”
Influential
- Authors
- Marino, M. T., Vasquez, E., Dieker, L., Basham, J., & Blackorby, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Central Florida (US)
- University of Kansas (US)
- Special Education, WestED, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Corresponding author
- Marino, Matthew T.
- Venue
- Journal of Special Education Technology
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2023-05-19
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 404-416
- ISSN
- 0162-6434 (ISSN-L)
- 2381-3121
- OpenAlex
- W4377097363
- Semantic Scholar
- e5a17b3bb700428309dbfc9b223c78e436918566
- Cited by
- 142
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 48 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 8
- FWCI
- 33.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Special Education Technology (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Office of Special Education Programs, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (#H327F200008)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Educational Technology in Learning
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Occupational Therapy › Assistive Technology in Communication and Mobility
- Keywords
- artificial intelligence, special education, assistive technology, writing software, AI writing tools, ethical considerations, education policy, initial teacher education, technology implementation
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