The value of workshops on psychological flexibility for early childhood special education staff
Open accessAbstract
High stress and burnout are common for early childhood special educators, contributing to high rates of attrition, diminished educational effectiveness, and high turnover. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is a promising approach for the prevention and treatment of a wide variety of problems. Using a randomized wait-list control design, this pilot study evaluated whether ACT workshops delivered to preschool teachers who serve children with developmental disabilities would improve stress-related problems of teachers (i.e., stress, depression, and burnout) and increase collegial support. At pretest, measures of experiential avoidance (EA) and mindful awareness (MA) showed significant relationships to reports of depression, stress, and burnout. The intervention reduced staff members’ EA, increased teachers’ MA and valued living (VL), and improved teachers’ sense of efficacy. This suggests that ACT workshops can help influence factors affecting depression, stress, and burnout in an early childhood special education setting.
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ACT workshops for staff in a special education setting influenced factors affecting depression, stress, and burnout.
“For example, ACT workshops for staff in a special education setting were found to influence factors affecting depression, stress, and burnout (Biglan et al., 2013)”
From Behind the masks: A cross-sectional study on intolerance of uncertainty, perceived vulnerability to disease and psychological flexibility in relation to state anxiety and wellbeing during the COVID-19 pandemic (2021) · cites this paper as Biglan et al., 2013
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“One study reported significant reductions in perceived stress (Biglan et al. 2013) while the other reported increased stress following training in ACT (McConachie et al.”
BackgroundAcceptance and commitment therapy: Applications for educational psychologists within schools
Gillard, D., Flaxman, P., & Hooper, N. (2018) · Educational Psychology in Practice · doi:10.1080/02667363.2018.1446911 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“As discussed, there is evidence supporting the utility of the ACT model as a guiding framework for interventions to promote and enhance wellbeing in the workplace, including interventions for school staff (for example, Biglan et al., 2013; Jeffcoat & Hayes, 2012; McConachie et al., 2014).”
BackgroundTanaka, N. R., Boyce, L., Chinn, C. C., & Murphy, K. N. (2020) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2020.1794246 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Can the chronic exclusion‐resignation link be broken? An analysis of support groups within prisons
Aureli, N., Marinucci, M., & Riva, P. (2020) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12701 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Cymbal, D. J., Litvak, S. G., Wilder, D. A., & Burns, G. N. (2021) · Journal of Organizational Behavior Management · doi:10.1080/01608061.2021.1910099 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Çiftçi, H. D. (2015) · Mediterranean Journal of Humanities · doi:10.13114/mjh.2015111378 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Rusby, J. C., Jones, L. B., Crowley, R. N., & Smolkowski, K. (2012) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2012.742992 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationGarcia, Y., Keller-Collins, A., Andrews, M., Kurumiya, Y., Imlay, K., Umphrey, B., & Foster, E. (2022) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/01454455211027301 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Three studies assessed multiple ACT measures, EA, cognitive fusion, and values (Bethay et al., 2013; Biglan et al., 2013; McConachie et al., 2014).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBurnout and Occupational Wellbeing of Special Education Teachers: Recent Research Synthesized
Brunsting, N. C., Morin, L. E., Gómez, L. R., Jones, B., Bettini, E. A., Cumming, M. M., Garwood, J. D., & Ruble, L. A. (2025) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543251332919 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“These studies expand Biglan et al.’s (2013) work linking mind-fulness and experiential avoidance with burnout.”
Chancey, C., Weihl, C., Root, W. B., Rehfeldt, R. A., McCauley, D., Takeguchi, K., & Pritchard, J. (2018) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2018.07.004 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
ACT in the workplace: A meta-analytic examination of randomized controlled trials
Unruh, I., Neubert, M., Wilhelm, M., & Euteneuer, F. (2022) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2022.09.003 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Choi, K., Vickers, K., & Tassone, A. (2014) · Europe's Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v10i2.754 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Paliliunas, D., Burke, R. V., Taylor, S., Frizell, C. B., Durbin, K. K., & Hutchings, D. L. (2022) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-022-00707-7 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Jeon, H., Kwon, K., McCartney, C. M., & Diamond, L. L. (2024) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2024.107915 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Smith, J. D., & Whitley, J. (2022) · The Educational Forum · doi:10.1080/00131725.2022.2053620 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“, opening up to a fuller range of inner experience and living in alignment with one’s values) and associated outcomes (stress, depression, and burnout) all moved in positive directions (Biglan et al., 2013).”
BackgroundA mixed-methods approach to understanding early childhood special educators’ well-being
Walter, H. L., Tuckwiller, B., Howard, L. C., Spencer, K. H., & Frey, J. R. (2023) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2023.08.002 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Deval, C., Bernard-Curie, S., & Monestès, J. (2016) · Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive · doi:10.1016/j.jtcc.2016.10.002 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
An Efficacy Trial of Carescapes: Home-Based Child-Care Practices and Children's Social Outcomes
Rusby, J. C., Jones, L. B., Crowley, R. N., & Smolkowski, K. (2016) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12541 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationAcceptance and Commitment Training in the Workplace
Flaxman, P. E., Prudenzi, A., & Zernerova, L. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197550076.013.19 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
A pilot study of acceptance and commitment therapy to improve teachers’ psychological well-being
Ghasemi, F., Gholami, J., Issazadegan, A., & Mohammadnia, Z. (2023) · Advances in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/18387357.2023.2200010 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…symptoms of di ff erent types of disorders (e.g., burnout and anxiety; Hayes et al., 2012; Holland et al., 2022) and promoting mental health and PWB of university sta ff (Hosseinaei et al., 2013), special education teachers (Biglan et al., 2013), and mental health workers (Luoma & Vilar-daga, 2013).”
School and Intrapersonal Predictors and Stability of Rural Special Education Teacher Burnout
Ruble, L. A., McGrew, J. H., Fischer, M. W., Findley, J. A., & Stayton, R. (2023) · Rural Special Education Quarterly · doi:10.1177/87568705231180885 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Leoni, M., Corti, S., Cavagnola, R., Healy, O., & Noone, S. J. (2016) · Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1108/amhid-09-2015-0046 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Addressing each of these factors in future research will give organisations greater evidence of what is effective and the best mode of delivery (Noone and Hastings, 2011; Bethay et al., 2013; Biglan et al., 2013; McConachie et al., 2014; Veage et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDíaz, M., García, Y., Ré, T. C., & Szabo, T. (2025) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2025.100870 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Walter, H. L., Kutscher, E. L., Fox, H. B., Tuckwiller, E. D., & Ball, K. B. (2023) · International Journal of Educational Research Open · doi:10.1016/j.ijedro.2023.100253 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Job Satisfaction of Teachers of Students who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing
Luckner, J. L., & Dorn, B. (2017) · The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education · doi:10.1093/deafed/enx016 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Taggart, G. (2019) · Bloomsbury Publishing Plc eBooks · doi:10.5040/9781350067509.ch-006 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“There are isolated examples where the affective dimension of ethical life is addressed in training such as in the use of ‘applied theatre’ (Khaner and Linds 2015) or in videoing practice (Elicker et al. 2008; Biglan et al. 2013).”
BackgroundAttending to Race in Teacher Well-Being Interventions: A Systematic Review and Recommendations
Griffiths, C. M., Pearman, F. A., O’Sullivan, K. E., Knight-Williams, L., Pagnani, M., Martin, S. E., & Brady, S. T. (2024) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543241289568 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…by citing past research that attuned to race or racial disparities in teacher well-being or retention (Almaguer-Botero, 2020; S. Anderson, 2000; Biglan et al., 2013; Goree, 2019; Holdaway, 2017; Vernon, 2014), others pointed to role of race or culture in previous teacher well-being…”
Stress Management Programs for Special Education Teachers
Eddy, C. L., Herman, K. C., & Reinke, W. M. (2024) · Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.1177/10634266241234917 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“This study used a waitlist control design and showed an association between decreased avoidance and improved mindfulness outcomes (Biglan et al., 2013).”
MethodPerspectives of Early Intervention Program Directors on Provider Retention Efforts
Yeager, K. H., Argus‐Calvo, B., Mangadu, T., Thimbriel, R., & Lozano, E. E. C. (2023) · Topics in Early Childhood Special Education · doi:10.1177/02711214231182019 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Vega-Campos, M., Pérez-Pérez, M., & Sarabia‐Cobo, C. (2025) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440251320192 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…be effective in preventing or improving certain aspects related to performance (Little et al., 2020), quality of life (Long & Hayes, 2014) or mental health in educational contexts— depression, anxiety and stress—(Biglan et al., 2013; Jeffcoat & Hayes, 2012; Ragulan et al., 2023; Suri et al., 2022).”
A kiégési szindróma megelőzése — A hagyományoktól a modern információs technológiákig
Szényei, G. A., Ádám, S., Győrffy, Z., & Túry, F. (2015) · Magyar Pszichológiai Szemle · doi:10.1556/0016.2015.70.4.8 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Galhardo, A. B., Carvalho, B., Massano‐Cardoso, I., & Cunha, M. I. V. A. (2020) · International Journal of School & Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/21683603.2020.1760978 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“In line with these findings and in a sample of preschool teachers, Biglan et al. (2013) also found that EA was significantly related to depression, burnout, and stress.”
ResultProfiles of early childhood special educator well-being
Walter, H. L., Kutscher, E. L., Fox, H. B., & Tuckwiller, E. D. (2022) · Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/10901027.2022.2093296 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Burnout: Definition, Prevalence, Risk Factors, Prevention, and Interventions Literature Reviews
Bouskill, K., Danz, M., Meredith, L. S., Chen, C., Chang, J., Baxi, S. M., Huynh, D., Al-Ibrahim, H., Motala, A., Larkin, J., et al. (2022) · RAND Corporation eBooks · doi:10.7249/rr-a428-1 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kern, B. D., Ellison, D. W., Killian, C., & Widmer, F. (2020) · Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science · doi:10.1080/1091367x.2020.1760870 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Though psychological flexibility has rarely been studied among teachers (Biglan et al., 2013), it may be an underlying factor that facilitates both the resiliency of teachers and their sense of purpose due to”
BackgroundAcceptance and Commitment Coaching in the Workplace
Skews, R., West, A., & Archer, R. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-79952-6_26 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Contextual Behavioral Science and Education
Szabo, T. G., & Dixon, M. R. (2015) · doi:10.1002/9781118489857.ch21 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Rad, Y., Prudenzi, A., Zernerova, L., Gerson, J., & Flaxman, P. E. (2025) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2025.100915 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Starting the Conversation About Interdisciplinary Counselor and Teacher Training
Parikh, S. B., & Anderson, K. M. (2019) · Professional School Counseling · doi:10.1177/2156759x20940646 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Special education teachers could be at higher risk for leaving due to increased stress and depression from responding to difficulties with their students, time demands, and low pay (Biglan et al., 2013).”
BackgroundUsing an Acceptance and Commitment Therapy app to Reduce Anxiety for Students and Employees
Sargisson, R. J., Li, F., Lobo, D. A., & Roche, M. (2019) · International Journal of Psychology & Behavior Analysis · doi:10.15344/2455-3867/2019/164 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
ACT in Schools: A Public Health ApproachPreprint
Renshaw, T. L., Weeks, S. N., Roberson, A. J., & Vinal, S. A. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ar3m8 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Acompanhamento para educadoras de bebês com deficiência em creche: relato de experiência
Bossi, T. J., & Piccinini, C. A. (2019) · Estilos da Clinica · doi:10.11606/issn.1981-1624.v24i2p358-370 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Tal aspecto coloca a importância de se considerar o bem-estar psicológico da educadora como impactando na qualidade do processo inclusivo (Biglan et al., 2013).”
BackgroundIntroduction to Acceptance and Commitment Practices
Holland, M. L., Brock, S. E., Oren, T., & van Eckhardt, M. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83492-0_2 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Renshaw, T. L., Weeks, S. N., Roberson, A. J., & Vinal, S. A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197550076.013.26 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Role of Experiential Avoidance in Teacher Stress and Mental Health.
Hinds, E. (2013) · Scholars' Bank (University of Oregon) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Pramesti, M. A., Hayati, E. N., & Bashori, K. (2024) · Psychosophia Journal of Psychology Religion and Humanity · doi:10.32923/psc.v6i1.3630 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Flexibility helps teachers better in behave according to achieving their goals (Biglan., et al 2013).”
BackgroundA scoping review and research agenda: Psychological flexibility and wellbeing in organisations
Roche, M., Faulkner, J. W., & Callagher, E. (2026) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.70139 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“This includes depression (Biglan et al., 2013), work stress (Bleki (cid:1) c et al., 2023), PTSD (Bryan et al., 2015), substance misuse (Baker et al., 2022), burnout (Kent et al., 2019), resilience (Hendriks et al., 2021), job performance (Ding & Wang, 2022) and job satisfaction (Novaes et al.,…”
Development and Reflection on Early Childhood Education in U. S. Higher Schools
Li, S. (2016) · e-Pedagogium · doi:10.5507/epd.2016.019 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Issen, T., Hinman, J. M., & Dixon, M. R. (2021) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-020-00528-6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Arslan, G., Tanhan, A., & Yavuz, K. F. (2024) · Advances in mental health and addiction · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-56192-4_6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Schaack, D. D., & Le, V. (2025) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2025.2449693 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…challenges their capacities to take children’s perspectives (Roberts et al., 2019), depresses their emotional flexibility and mindful awareness (Biglan et al., 2013), contributes to teachers’ negative appraisals of and reactions to children’s behaviors (Buettner et al., 2016), and is…”
Voices from Within: Teacher Sensitivity in an Early Childhood Elementary School
Holmes, A. (2019) · doi:10.31390/gradschool_dissertations.4950 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Components of Psychological Flexibility and Inflexibility That Predict Risk-Taking Behaviors
Upton, S. R. (2020) · doi:10.31390/gradschool_dissertations.5306 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cuvillier-Remacle, O. (2014)
Implementation of Read to Be Ready Instructional Practices: A Case Study
Bigham, J. D. (2019) · Digital Commons (Liberty University)
Mindfulness and Acceptance Practices
Holland, M. L., Brock, S. E., Oren, T., & van Eckhardt, M. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83492-0_3
CARE for Teachers: The Mediating Role of Distress Tolerance on Burnout
Khan, L. (2019) · American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (AERA) · doi:10.3102/1444167
Abouzaid, A. M. G. (2022) · مجلة البحث العلمى فى التربية · doi:10.21608/jsre.2022.148463.1488
Pierce, K., Yamada, S., Major, M., & Pepler, D. J. (2023) · Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.1177/10634266231165488
“An intervention designed to increase early childhood educators’ psychological flexibility was found to improve factors related to stress and burnout (Biglan et al., 2013).”
Hontoy, L.-M., & Grégoire, S. (2023) · Humain et Organisation · doi:10.7202/1095987ar
“Biglan, Layton, Jones, Hankins et Rusby (2013) ont mené une étude auprès de 30 éducateurs spécialisés de niveau préscolaire et de 12 intervenants en milieu familial afin d’évaluer l’efficacité d’ateliers issus de l’approche d’acceptation et d’engagement (Bond et Bunce, 2000; Hayes et al., 2004 Au…”
Preventive measures of stress and Burnout syndrome in teachers: a bibliographic review
Goelzer, D. P., da Rocha, C. F. K., & Berlese, D. B. (2023) · Concilium · doi:10.53660/clm-1980-23n47
Die Bedeutung sozialer Interaktionen für die Gesundheit von Lehrpersonen
Wettstein, A. (2024) · Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Heilpädagogik/Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Heilpädagogik · doi:10.57161/z2024-03-03
Primjena mindfulnessa u području edukacijske rehabilitacije
Martinec, R., Domić, D., & Miholić, D. (2024) · Hrvatska revija za rehabilitacijska istraživanja · doi:10.31299/hrri.60.2.8
Thomson, K. M., Davis, S., Bernier, S. L., Magnacca, C., Noone, S., & Lunsky, Y. (2025) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/jar.70058
“There is emerging evidence evaluating ACTr with staff providing services to people with intellectual disabilities in clinical, healthcare and education settings (e.g., Biglan et al. 2013; Garcia et al. 2021; Ragulan et al. 2022).”
Psychological flexibility-based interventions for teacher well-being: A systematic review
Kämper, E., Lampinen, V. S., Katajavuori, N., Carvalho, T. D. S., & Asikainen, H. (2026) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2026.105591
Hentschel, E., Alsager, A., McCoy, D. C., Kim, S.-H., Rao, N., Wade, C. G., & Yousafzai, A. K. (2026) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2026.04.012
Asikainen, H., Lampinen, V. S., & Katajavuori, N. (2026) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/84729
The impact of stressors on the mental health and well-being of early childhood educators
Probert-Gilhooly, M., & Jacobs, B. (2026) · Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/10901027.2026.2686142
Palmer, K., & Rogge, R. D. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16061018
“Building on the promising findings of ACT and mindfulness-based interventions with teachers (e.g., Biglan et al., 2013; Emerson et al., 2017; Jennings et al., 2017; Paliliunas et al., 2023; Roeser et al., 2013), the study conducted a broader (Model 1) and a more fine-grained, process-focused (Model…”
InfluentialSaputra, Y. O., Hasnida, Tuapattinaja, J. M. R., & Nauly, M. (2026) · Cyprus Turkish Journal of Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.35365/ctjpp.26.2.04
Watanabe, T., Ishii, T., & Akechi, T. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1858994
“Core processes include acceptance, cognitive defusion, and progress toward values, all of which have been associated with reduced distress and improved well-being among healthcare workers (28 – 33).”
Thomas, R., Margaret, B. E., Shwetha, T. S., Nayak, B. S., George, L. S., Shekhar, R., & Vani Lakshmi, R. (2026) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2026-121419
“48 Identified interventions to manage stress and burnout among special educators (global) 12 types of interventions were identified globally for managing the occupational stress and burnout of special education teachers, as shown in figure 3.”
Miao, R., & Su, Y. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10917071/v1
- Authors
- Biglan, A., Layton, G. L., Jones, L. B., Hankins, M., & Rusby, J. C.
- Affiliations
- Oregon Research Institute (US)
- Early Education Program, Eugene, OR, USA
- Venue
- Topics in Early Childhood Special Education
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2011-11-03
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 196-210
- ISSN
- 0271-1214 (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4845
- PMC
- PMC3820423
- OpenAlex
- W2051962197
- Cited by
- 98
- References
- 83
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 2.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Topics in Early Childhood Special Education (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministerstvo Školství, Mládeže a Tělovýchovy
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (P30DA018760, R01DA019037)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD060922)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Stress and Burnout Research
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Occupational Therapy › Occupational Health and Burnout
- Keywords
- acceptance and commitment therapy, psychological flexibility, early childhood special education, preschool teachers, teacher burnout, teacher stress, depression, experiential avoidance, mindful awareness, valued living, teacher self-efficacy, collegial support, developmental disabilities
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