Sexual harassment on the internet
Abstract
Sexual harassment offline is a well-known, highly prevalent, extensively investigated, and intensively treated social problem. An accepted model classifies sexual harassment behaviors into the categories of gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual coercion. Theory and research show that sexual harassment behavior occurs as a product of person · situation characteristics and has substantial personal and organizational costs. This article reviews the available information on sexual harassment in cyberspace, equates this phenomenon with what has been learned about sexual harassment offline, points to specific characteristics of online culture and technology that reinforce the behavior, and proposes ways of promoting prevention.
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No single model encapsulates all specific manifestations of online sexual harassment.
“there is no single model that encapsulates all of its specific manifestations (Barak, 2005; Fitzgerald et al., 1995; Henry & Powell, 2018).”
From Online Sexual Harassment Perpetration Among Peer Adolescents: A Cross-National and Cross-Gender Study (2025) · cites this paper as Barak, 2005
Online sexual harassment is a multidimensional phenomenon encompassing several interrelated forms of aggression.
“the literature conclusively states that online sexual harassment is a multidimensional phenomenon that encompasses several interrelated forms of aggression”
From Online Sexual Harassment Perpetration Among Peer Adolescents: A Cross-National and Cross-Gender Study (2025) · cites this paper as Barak, 2005
Previous theoretical models suggest that traditional forms of harassment (transposed directly from the offline to the online environment) are interrelated in the online context, at least in terms of victimisation.
“Previous theoretical models suggest that traditional forms of harassment (transposed directly from the offline to the online environment) are interrelated in the online context (Barak, 2005), at least in terms of victimisation (Sánchez-Jiménez et al., 2017).”
From Online Sexual Harassment Perpetration Among Peer Adolescents: A Cross-National and Cross-Gender Study (2025) · cites this paper as Barak, 2005
The direct and ambiguous dimensions of online sexual harassment identified by Barak (2005) overlap in the online context among adolescents.
“Similarly to that found in the study by Sánchez-Jiménez et al. (2017) on online sexual victimisation in adolescence, the direct and ambiguous dimensions identified by Barak (2005) seem to overlap in the online context also.”
From Online Sexual Harassment Perpetration Among Peer Adolescents: A Cross-National and Cross-Gender Study (2025) · cites this paper as Barak (2005)
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Fontana-Rosa, J. C. (2001) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x01451008 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The Effects of Sexual Assault on Sexual Attitudes
Redfearn, A. A., & Laner, M. R. (2000) · Marriage & Family Review · doi:10.1300/j002v30n01_08 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Oravec, J. A. (2000) · The Teacher Educator · doi:10.1080/08878730009555233 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Crime and IT (part II): 'Stalking the Net'
Griffiths, Me, R., & Sparrow, P. (1998) · Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Barak, A. (1992) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.47.6.818 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationAbuse of Power: Sexual Misconduct in the Legal Workplace
Hoffspiegel, L. (2002) · Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity The Journal of Treatment and Prevention · doi:10.1080/10720160290062266 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
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Technology-facilitated sexual violence: A literature review of empirical research
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The Internet’s impact on sexuality: A critical review of 15 years of research
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Bates, S. (2017) · Feminist Criminology · doi:10.1177/1557085116654565 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
Online incivility or sexual harassment? Conceptualising women's experiences in the digital age
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Embodied Harms: Gender, Shame, and Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence
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Sexual harassment among adolescents of different sexual orientations and gender identities
Mitchell, K. J., Ybarra, M. L., & Korchmaros, J. D. (2014) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.09.008 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
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Dick pics on blast: A woman’s resistance to online sexual harassment using humour, art and Instagram
Vitis, L., & Gilmour, F. (2017) · Crime, Media, Culture: An International Journal · doi:10.1177/1741659016652445 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Zhang, R., Li, H., Meng, H., Zhan, J., Gan, H., & Lee, Y.-C. (2025) · Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3713429 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“Both of these harmful AI behaviors mirror toxic behaviors in interpersonal relationships, especially close relationships [8, 27, 29].”
Gámez-Guadix, M., & Incera, D. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106728 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Online sexual harassment over anonymous social media in Bangladesh
Nova, F. F., Rifat, M. R., Saha, P., Ahmed, S. I., & Guha, S. (2019) · Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies and Development · doi:10.1145/3287098.3287107 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Credible Threat: Attacks Against Women Online and the Future of Democracy
Sobieraj, S. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190089283.001.0001 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Social media, cyber-aggression and student mental health on a university campus
Mishna, F., Regehr, C., Lacombe-Duncan, A., Daciuk, J., Fearing, G., & Van Wert, M. (2018) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2018.1437607 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Gámez-Guadix, M., Sorrel, M. A., & Martínez-Bacaicoa, J. (2023) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-022-00775-y · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Online Sexual Harassment in Adolescence: A Scoping Review
Angela, F., María-Luisa, R.-D., Annalaura, N., & Ersilia, M. (2024) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-023-00869-1 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Martínez-Bacaicoa, J., Sorrel, M. A., & Gámez-Guadix, M. (2024) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911241229575 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Durán-Guerrero, E., Nocentini, A., Menesini, E., & Sánchez-Jiménez, V. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15070969 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…the literature conclusively states that online sexual harassment is a multidimensional phenomenon that encompasses several interrelated forms of aggression, there is no single model that encapsulates all of its specific manifestations (Barak, 2005; Fitzgerald et al., 1995; Henry & Powell, 2018).”
Influential
- Authors
- Barak, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Haifa (IL)
- Corresponding author
- Barak, Azy
- Venue
- Social Science Computer Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2005-02
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 77-92
- ISSN
- 0894-4393 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-8286
- OpenAlex
- W2056956830
- Cited by
- 367
- References
- 138
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 38 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 10.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Social Science Computer Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Stalking, Cyberstalking, and Harassment
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Workplace Violence and Bullying
- Keywords
- sexual harassment, internet, online harassment, unwanted sexual attention, sexual coercion, gender-based harassment, online culture, technology characteristics, prevention
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