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Revenge Porn and Mental Health: A Qualitative Analysis of the Mental Health Effects of Revenge Porn on Female Survivors
Abstract
This study examines the emotional and mental health effects revenge porn has on female survivors. To date, no other academic studies have exclusively focused on mental health effects in revenge porn cases. In-depth qualitative interviews were conducted between February 2014 and January 2015 with 18 female revenge porn survivors, and inductive analysis revealed participants’ experiences of trust issues, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, depression, suicidal thoughts, and several other mental health effects. These findings reveal the seriousness of revenge porn, the devastating impacts it has on survivors’ mental health, and similarities between revenge porn and sexual assault.
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Prior intimate partner violence predicts subsequent sextortion, particularly during crisis periods such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
“Prior intimate partner violence predicts subsequent sextortion particularly during crisis periods such as the COVID 19 pandemic when shared images are weaponized to maintain control (Ross et al., 2019; Bates, 2017; Eaton et al., 2023).”
From Constructing Offender Typologies From Judicial Data: A Clustering Analysis of Sextortion Cases (2026) · cites this paper as Bates, 2017
The mental health impact of revenge porn is severe and well-documented.
“The mental health impact of revenge porn is severe and well-documented.”
From Algorithmic Abuse: How Social Platforms Amplify Revenge Porn, digital grooming and Sexual Coercion (2026) · cites this paper as Bates (2017)
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Henry, N., Flynn, A., & Powell, A. (2020) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801219875821 · Cited by 241
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“In individual interviews with 18 female “revenge porn” survivors, participants reported posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, suicidal thoughts, other negative mental health outcomes as a result of their victimization (Bates, 2017).”
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“In a qualitative study of 18 women examining the psychological implications of revenge pornography, Bates (2016) found higher levels of mistrust and associated other emotional symptoms similar to traumatic stress, general anxiety, and depression.”
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“The methodology and motivations that drive cyber sextortion are similar to other interpersonal crimes such as intimate partner violence (Bates, 2017), cybercrime (“Record Numbers of UK Men Fall Victim to Sextortion Gangs,” 2018), and child exploitation (Acar, 2016).”
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“Recent empirical work by Bates (2017) illustrates how nonconsensual image sharing operates as a new form of sexual harassment.”
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“Bates (2016) found that female ‘revenge porn’ victims may suffer from trust issues, posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety and depression, and Franks (2015) found a heightened risk of suicide, with over half of ‘revenge porn’ victims reporting suicidal thoughts (Franks, 2015).”
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“The victim’s persistent fear of the images turning up again adds to the permanence of the abuse in a way similar to how the victims of stalking may fear new violence from the stalker (Johansen and Tjørnhøj-Thomsen 2016; Bates 2017).”
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“Moreover, women are more likely to be victims of a range of cybercrimes (Marcum et al., 2014; Asadullah Khaskheli and Bhuiyan, 2017; Bates, 2017), so research into their cyber resilience cannot be neglected.”
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Mania, K. (2020) · Sexuality & Culture · doi:10.1007/s12119-020-09738-0 · Cited by 74
“Artificial intelligence and digital reality make us face new fields of law infringements that did not exist just a few years back (Bates 2016).”
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Nonconsensual Sharing of Private Sexually Explicit Media Among University Students
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“Bates (2017) interviewed 18 female survivors who had experienced a range of incidents in which images were shared with the specific motivation of revenge.”
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Rackley, E., McGlynn, C., Johnson, K., Henry, N., Gavey, N., Flynn, A., & Powell, A. (2021) · Feminist Legal Studies · doi:10.1007/s10691-021-09460-8 · Cited by 70
“What was also clear from our interviews with victim-survivors across all three countries is that image-based sexual abuse for many can be a devastating form of abuse, engendering serious, multifaceted and enduring harm (see further Bates 2017; McGlynn et al.”
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Powell, A., Scott, A. J., Flynn, A., & McCook, S. (2022) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605211072266 · Cited by 81
Victim-blaming and image-based sexual abuse
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“However, as against extant literature that identified relationship retribution as the main motivation behind these actions (Bates, 2016; Borrajo & Gámez-Guadix, 2015), which largely prompt the use of the term “revenge pornography” (Branch, et al., 2017; Burris, 2014), this study found voyeurism to…”
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Image-Based Sexual Abuse Associated Factors: A Systematic Review
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Image-Based Sexual Abuse: An Australian Reflection
Flynn, A., & Henry, N. (2019) · Women & Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/08974454.2019.1646190 · Cited by 56
“These findings are consistent with Bates’ (2017) qualitative study of IBSA victimization, in which Canadian and U.S. adults who self-identified as IBSA victims (n¼ 18), characterized their experiences as “a horrendous invasion of sexual privacy … and in most cases [was done] at the hands of someone…”
ResultTechnology-Facilitated Domestic Violence Against Immigrant and Refugee Women: A Qualitative Study
Henry, N., Vasil, S., Flynn, A., Kellard, K., & Mortreux, C. (2021) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605211001465 · Cited by 55
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The Sexual Double Standard in the Real World
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‘A shadow of me old self’: The impact of image-based sexual abuse in a digital society
Huber, A. R. (2022) · International Review of Victimology · doi:10.1177/02697580211063659 · Cited by 47
Powell, A., Scott, A. J., Flynn, A., & McCook, S. (2022) · Journal of Sexual Aggression · doi:10.1080/13552600.2022.2119292 · Cited by 60
“…regarding gender and the prevalence of IBSA victimisation, few quantitative studies have examined the gendered nature or contexts of IBSA, though some qualitative research suggests women in particular may experience severe and long-lasting harms as a result (e.g. Bates, 2017; McGlynn et al., 2021).”
BackgroundFamily functioning patterns predict teenage girls’ sexting
Bianchi, D., Morelli, M., Baiocco, R., Cattelino, E., Laghi, F., & Chirumbolo, A. (2019) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025419873037 · Cited by 53
“This behavior may be a cyber form of sexual harassment (Machimbarrena et al., 2018) and can include dating aggression and revenge (Bates, 2017; Bianchi, Morelli, Nappa, Baiocco, & Chirumbolo, 2018; Morelli, Bianchi, Cattelino, et al., 2017) and cyberbullying (Medrano, Lopez Rosales, &…”
BackgroundCyber Dating Abuse Victimization: Links With Psychosocial Functioning
Duerksen, K. N., & Woodin, E. M. (2019) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260519872982 · Cited by 39
“Qualitative research has identified a range of reported impacts of sexual CDA victimization, including severe distress, lower self-esteem and self-confidence, and post-traumatic stress symptoms (Bates, 2016), although here again it is difficult to determine whether these outcomes were due to sexual CDA victimization s…”
BackgroundThe emotional bystander – sexting and image-based sexual abuse among young adults
Harder, S. K. (2020) · Journal of Youth Studies · doi:10.1080/13676261.2020.1757631 · Cited by 45
Perceptions of victim and offender culpability in non-consensual distribution of intimate images
Zvi, L., & Bitton, M. S. (2020) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2020.1818236 · Cited by 46
Laffier, J., & Rehman, A. (2023) · Journal of Digital Life and Learning · doi:10.51357/jdll.v3i1.218 · Cited by 44
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“Adult TFSV cases are illustrated in Bates (2017 ) and Powell and Henry (2016 ); such cases show the need to include adults in re search on cyberbullying.”
BackgroundInfluentialSext Dissemination: Differences across Nations in Motivations and Associations
Clancy, E. M., Klettke, B., Crossman, A. M., Hallford, D. J., Howard, D., & Toumbourou, J. W. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18052429 · Cited by 44
“These consequences include negative impacts on trust, increased anxiety and depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and suicidal thoughts [8].”
BackgroundThe Psychology of Nonconsensual Porn: Understanding and Addressing a Growing Form of Sexual Violence
Eaton, A. A., & McGlynn, C. M. S. (2020) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/2372732220941534 · Cited by 44
Designing and Evaluating a Chatbot for Survivors of Image-Based Sexual Abuse
Maeng, W., & Lee, J. (2022) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3491102.3517629 · Cited by 45
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Image Based Sexual Abuse proclivity and victim blaming
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Short-Term and Long-Term Impacts of Financial Sextortion on Victim’s Mental Well-Being
O’Malley, R. L. (2023) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605231156416 · Cited by 34
“If U Don’t Pay they will Share the Pics”: Exploring Sextortion in the Context of Romance Fraud
Cross, C., Holt, K., & O’Malley, R. L. (2023) · Victims & Offenders · doi:10.1080/15564886.2022.2075064 · Cited by 39
Campbell, J. K., Poage, S. M., Godley, S., & Rothman, E. F. (2020) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260520967150 · Cited by 42
“These studies have also found that some victims disconnect from social media, and may withdraw from intimate or other supportive relationships in an attempt to minimize their risk for subsequent harm (Bates, 2017; Lenhart et al., 2016; McGlynn et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialBuchanan, N., & Mahoney, A. (2021) · Legal and Criminological Psychology · doi:10.1111/lcrp.12197 · Cited by 35
Flynn, A., Powell, A., & Hindes, S. (2023) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azad044 · Cited by 35
O’Connor, K. W., Drouin, M. A., Davis, J., & Thompson, H. (2018) · Higher Education Quarterly · doi:10.1111/hequ.12171 · Cited by 35
Karasavva, V., Swanek, J., Smodis, A., & Forth, A. E. (2022) · Journal of Sexual Aggression · doi:10.1080/13552600.2022.2032430 · Cited by 37
Intrasexual Competition as a Predictor of Women’s Judgments of Revenge Pornography Offending
Fido, D., Harper, C. A., Davis, M. A., Petronzi, D., & Worrall, S. G. M. (2019) · Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1177/1079063219894306 · Cited by 36
Nudes are Forever: Judicial Interpretations of Digital Technology’s Impact on “Revenge Porn”
Dodge, A. (2019) · Canadian Journal of Law and Society / Revue Canadienne Droit et Société · doi:10.1017/cls.2019.4 · Cited by 33
“Scholars also express concerns that digital memory increases the impact of NCIID, such as Bates’ assertion that “once a photo is posted online, it is challenging to completely remove from the Internet, which means the harm is continuous and long lasting” (Bates 2017, 23; Bailey 2015; Hasinoff 2015).”
BackgroundPredictors of Online Child Sexual Abuse in a U.S. National Sample
Turner, H. A., David Finkelhor, B., & Colburn, D. (2023) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605221149090 · Cited by 32
Zvi, L. (2021) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605211050109 · Cited by 31
Image-Based Sexual Abuse as a Means of Coercive Control: Victim-Survivor Experiences
Henry, N., Gavey, N., & Johnson, K. (2023) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012221114918 · Cited by 31
Sciacca, B., Mazzone, A., Loftsson, M., Norman, J. O., & Foody, M. (2023) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605231165777 · Cited by 35
Dardis, C. M., & Richards, E. C. (2022) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012221077126 · Cited by 32
To pay or not to pay: An exploratory analysis of sextortion in the context of romance fraud
Cross, C., Holt, K. M., & Holt, T. J. (2023) · Criminology & Criminal Justice · doi:10.1177/17488958221149581 · Cited by 35
Development and Validation of the Beliefs About Revenge Pornography Questionnaire
Harper, C. A., Smith, L., Leach, J., Daruwala, N. A., & Fido, D. (2022) · Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1177/10790632221082663 · Cited by 37
Police Officer Perceptions of Non-consensual Dissemination of Intimate Images
Zvi, L., & Bitton, M. S. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02148 · Cited by 29
“Shame, low self-esteem, and loss of trust in others are common and might be further exacerbated if friends, family, colleagues, and employers are exposed to the victim’s intimate photos (Citron and Franks, 2014; Kamal and Newman, 2016; Bates, 2017).”
BackgroundGalán, J. G., López, J. Á. M., Lázaro-Pérez, C., & Cabrero, J. C. G. (2021) · Journal of Open Innovation Technology Market and Complexity · doi:10.3390/joitmc7010017 · Cited by 30
Online Harassment in Majority Contexts: Examining Harms and Remedies across Countries
Schoenebeck, S. Y., Batool, A., Do, G., Darling, S., Grill, G., Wilkinson, D., Khan, M., Toyama, K., & Ashwell, L. (2023) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3544548.3581020 · Cited by 42
Online Sexual Harassment in Adolescence: A Scoping Review
Angela, F., María-Luisa, R.-D., Annalaura, N., & Ersilia, M. (2024) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-023-00869-1 · Cited by 29
Materiality and Discursivity of Cyber Violence Against Women in India
Sarkar, S., & Rajan, B. (2021) · Journal of Creative Communications · doi:10.1177/0973258621992273 · Cited by 34
“There is a dominance of research on various kinds of gender-based sexual violence in the Global North (Bates, 2017; Citron & Franks, 2014; Dragiewicz et al., 2019) and a lack of studies in the Global South.”
BackgroundPrevalence and Correlates of Sext-Sharing Among a Representative Sample of Youth in the Netherlands
Boer, S., Erdem, Ö., de Graaf, H., & Götz, H. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.655796 · Cited by 36
“Once a sext gets into circulation, dissemination can go fast (Garcia et al., 2016; Van Ouytsel et al., 2017) and this has been known to result in reputational damage, self-blame, feelings of threat and paranoia, embarrassment and even suicide (Bates, 2016; Anastassiou, 2017).”
BackgroundPrevalence and Impacts of Image-Based Sexual Abuse Victimization: A Multinational Study
Umbach, R., Henry, N., & Beard, G. (2025) · Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3713545 · Cited by 28
Attributions of victim responsibility in revenge pornography
Gavin, J., & Scott, A. J. (2019) · Journal of Aggression Conflict and Peace Research · doi:10.1108/jacpr-03-2019-0408 · Cited by 33
Technology-Facilitated Violence and Abuse: International Perspectives and Experiences
Bailey, J., Henry, N., & Flynn, A. (2021) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-83982-848-520211001 · Cited by 38
Trading nudes like hockey cards: Exploring the diversity of 'Revenge Porn' cases responded to in law
Dodge, A. (2021) · Social & Legal Studies · doi:10.1177/0964663920935155 · Cited by 29
Maas, M. K., Cary, K. M., Clancy, E. M., Klettke, B., McCauley, H. L., & Temple, J. R. (2021) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-021-01920-1 · Cited by 31
“For instance, image-based sexual abuse survivors have exhibited similar symptoms as physical sexual abuse survivors such as PTSD, anxiety, and depression (Bates, 2017).”
BackgroundBrighi, A., Amadori, A., Summerer, K., & Menin, D. (2023) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2023.100414 · Cited by 27
Said, I., & McNealey, R. L. (2023) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605221122834 · Cited by 27
Technology-Facilitated Abuse Victimization: A Gendered Analysis in a Representative Survey of Adults
Powell, A., & Flynn, A. (2023) · Feminist Criminology · doi:10.1177/15570851231196548 · Cited by 32
Mainwaring, C., Scott, A. J., & Gabbert, F. (2024) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605231222452 · Cited by 26
Disrupting and Preventing Deepfake Abuse: Exploring Criminal Law Responses to AI-Facilitated Abuse
Flynn, A., Clough, J. A., & Cooke, T. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83734-1_29 · Cited by 26
Maas, M. K., Gal, T., Cary, K. M., & Greer, K. M. (2022) · American Journal of Sexuality Education · doi:10.1080/15546128.2022.2076757 · Cited by 29
Benítez‐Hidalgo, V., Montiel, J. H., Ruiz-Pérez, I., & Pastor‐Moreno, G. (2024) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380241286813 · Cited by 41
Thorburn, B., Gavey, N., Single, G., Wech, A., Calder‐Dawe, O., & Benton-Greig, P. (2021) · Women s Studies International Forum · doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2021.102448 · Cited by 29
Metadata
- Authors
- Bates, S.
- Affiliations
- Simon Fraser University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Bates, Samantha
- Venue
- Feminist Criminology
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2016-07-24
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 22-42
- ISSN
- 1557-0851 (ISSN-L)
- 1557-086X
- OpenAlex
- W2474134308
- Cited by
- 414
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 51 · 2025: 62 · 2024: 45 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 45 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 48 · 2019: 36 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 56.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Feminist Criminology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Stalking, Cyberstalking, and Harassment
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender, Feminism, and Media
- Keywords
- revenge porn, mental health, women survivors, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation, trust issues, sexual assault, intimate partner violence, online sexual harassment
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