Technology-facilitated sexual violence: A literature review of empirical research
Abstract
Technology-facilitated sexual violence (TFSV) refers to a range of behaviors where digital technologies are used to facilitate both virtual and face-to-face sexually based harms. Such behaviors include online sexual harassment, gender- and sexuality-based harassment, cyberstalking, image-based sexual exploitation, and the use of a carriage service to coerce a victim into an unwanted sexual act. This article reviews the current state of knowledge on these different dimensions, drawing on existing empirical studies. While there is a growing body of research into technology-facilitated harms perpetrated against children and adolescents, there is a dearth of qualitative and quantitative research on TFSV against adults. Moreover, few of the existing studies provide reliable data on the nature, scope, and impacts of TFSV. Preliminary studies, however, indicate that some harms, much like sexual violence more broadly, may be predominantly gender-, sexuality-, and age-based, with young women being overrepresented as victims in some categories. This review collects the empirical evidence to date regarding the prevalence and gender-based nature of TFSV against adults and discusses the implications for policy and programs, as well as suggestions for future research.
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No single model encapsulates all specific manifestations of online sexual harassment.
“there is no single model that encapsulates all of its specific manifestations (Barak, 2005; Fitzgerald et al., 1995; Henry & Powell, 2018).”
From Online Sexual Harassment Perpetration Among Peer Adolescents: A Cross-National and Cross-Gender Study (2025) · cites this paper as Henry & Powell, 2018
TFSV's harms are disturbingly common, highly gendered and most often relational.
“Henry and Powell (2018) conclude that TFSV's harms are 'disturbingly common, highly gendered and most often relational', (195) thus, reiterating the necessity for understanding and theorizing TFSV as deeply traumatizing and harmful for victims/survivors.”
From Technology-facilitated sexual violence perpetration as a tool for gender policing in secondary schools (2026) · cites this paper as Henry and Powell 2018
The pervasiveness of TFSV remains deeply intertwined with how easy it is to perpetrate these acts online, as anonymity tends to provide a shield of protection in cyberspaces.
“According to Henry and Powell (2018), the pervasiveness of TFSV remains deeply intertwined with how easy it is to perpetrate these acts online, as anonymity tends to provide a shield of protection in cyberspaces.”
From Technology-facilitated sexual violence perpetration as a tool for gender policing in secondary schools (2026) · cites this paper as Henry and Powell 2018
Online sexual harassment is a multidimensional phenomenon encompassing several interrelated forms of aggression.
“the literature conclusively states that online sexual harassment is a multidimensional phenomenon that encompasses several interrelated forms of aggression”
From Online Sexual Harassment Perpetration Among Peer Adolescents: A Cross-National and Cross-Gender Study (2025) · cites this paper as Henry & Powell, 2018
The Internet is not creating these crimes; however, advancements in technology, when misused, have expanded the scope and capabilities of child sexual abuse on a broader scale.
“It is important to underline that the Internet is not creating these crimes; however, these advancements in technology, when misused, have expanded the scope and capabilities of child sexual abuse on a broader scale [5].”
From Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse of Children and Adolescents with Disabilities: A Systematic Review (2024) · cites this paper as [5]
Women are disproportionally the targets of violence and abuse online.
“While women are the primary targets of gender-based violence offline, they are also disproportionally the targets of violence and abuse online (Henry & Powell, 2018; Kavanagh et al., 2019)”
From Stochastic Gender-Based Violence: How Incels Justify and Encourage Sexualized Violence Against Women (2025) · cites this paper as Henry & Powell, 2018
A focus on facilitation emphasizes the ability for abusers to organize, disguise, and manipulate the online sphere to create new realities for women's participation.
“A focus on facilitation emphasizes the ability for abusers to organize, disguise, and manipulate the online sphere to create new realities for women's participation (Henry & Powell, 2018).”
From Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence, Hate Speech, and Terrorism: A Risk Assessment on the Rise of the Incel Rebellion in Canada (2023) · cites this paper as Henry & Powell, 2018
Theoretical understandings of GBV against women are separated into online versus physical spheres.
“This is in line with a general trend, whereby theoretical understandings of GBV against women are separated into online versus physical spheres (Henry & Powell, 2018; United Nations Broadband Commission For Digital Development Working Group on Broadband and Gender, 2015).”
From Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence, Hate Speech, and Terrorism: A Risk Assessment on the Rise of the Incel Rebellion in Canada (2023) · cites this paper as Henry & Powell, 2018
Expansion of Henry & Powell's (2018) term "technology-facilitated sexual violence" to "technology-facilitated gender-based violence (TFGBV)" extends definitions of online instances of harm against women to incorporate wider intent and experiences, rooted in conflicts surrounding gender roles and ideologies, such as hegemonic masculinity.
“Expansion of Henry & Powell's (2018) term “technology-facilitated sexual violence” to “technology-facilitated gender-based violence (TFGBV)” extends definitions of online instances of harm against women to incorporate wider intent and experiences, rooted in conflicts surrounding gender roles and ideologies, such as hegemonic masculinity (Hinson et al., 2018).”
From Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence, Hate Speech, and Terrorism: A Risk Assessment on the Rise of the Incel Rebellion in Canada (2023) · cites this paper as Henry & Powell, 2018
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“While women are the primary targets of gender-based violence of fl ine, they are also disproportionally the targets of violence and abuse online (Henry & Powell, 2018; Kavanagh et al., 2019), with McCaughey and Cermele (2022) suggesting that TFSV “ extends the analog-era rape culture ” (p. 3955).”
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“…(Schoeps et al., 2020), or where the perpetrator threatens to share intimate images of the victim to blackmail them into sending more images, paying money, performing a sexual act, or preventing them from breaking up the relationship (‘sextortion’) (Henry & Powell, 2018; Henry & Umbach, 2024).”
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“Research points to the ‘persistent nature and prevalence of sexual violence and harass-ment’ (Henry and Powell 2018, 195) including that which is facilitated by technology.”
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“The authors differentiate between ‘online/digital sexual harassment, gender-and sexuality-based harassment, cyberstalking, image-based sexual exploitation, and the use of a carriage service to perpetrate a sexual assault or coerce an unwanted sexual experience’ (Henry & Powell, 2018, p. 196).”
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“…of TFGBV, including online harassment, image-based abuse, doxxing (the deliberate public exposure of a target’s real-world identity to facilitate offline harm), and coordinated targeting, finding that women and gender minorities are disproportionately and systematically affected [24, 25, 43, 50].”
Constructing Offender Typologies From Judicial Data: A Clustering Analysis of Sextortion Cases
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“…these materials unless victims comply with speci fi c demands, which may include providing additional explicit content, engaging in sexual acts, making fi nancial payments, or submitting to ongoing control (Henry & Powell, 2018; McGlynn & Rackley, 2017; Patchin & Hinduja, 2018; Wolak et al., 2018).”
- Authors
- Henry, N., & Powell, A.
- Affiliations
- La Trobe University (AU)
- RMIT University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Henry, Nicola
- Venue
- Trauma, Violence, & Abuse
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2016-06-16
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 195-208
- ISSN
- 1524-8380 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-8324
- OpenAlex
- W2425438624
- Cited by
- 675
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 126 · 2025: 108 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 133 · 2022: 80 · 2021: 69 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 44.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Trauma Violence & Abuse (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RMIT Research Repository (RMIT University Library) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Australian Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Stalking, Cyberstalking, and Harassment
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender, Feminism, and Media
- Keywords
- technology-facilitated sexual violence, online sexual harassment, cyberstalking, gender-based harassment, prevalence of sexual violence, gender differences in victimization
- MeSH terms
- Smartphone, Cyberbullying, Coercion, Female, Humans, Male, Sex Factors, Sex Offenses, Sexual Harassment, Crime Victims, Internet, Empirical Research, Stalking, Social Media
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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