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Decentering and Related Constructs: A Critical Review and Metacognitive Processes Model
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The capacity to shift experiential perspective—from within one’s subjective experience onto that experience—is fundamental to being human. Scholars have long theorized that this metacognitive capacity—which we refer to as decentering—may play an important role in mental health. To help illuminate this mental phenomenon and its links to mental health, we critically examine decentering-related constructs and their respective literatures (e.g., self-distanced perspective, cognitive distancing, cognitive defusion). First, we introduce a novel metacognitive processes model of decentering. Specifically, we propose that, to varying degrees, decentering-related constructs reflect a common mental phenomenon subserved by three interrelated metacognitive processes: meta-awareness, disidentification from internal experience, and reduced reactivity to thought content. Second, we examine extant research linking decentering-related constructs and their underlying metacognitive processes to mental health. We conclude by proposing future directions for research that transcends decentering-related constructs in an effort to advance the field’s understanding of this facet of human experience and its role in (mal)adaptation.
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“Second, items in the (non)reactivity to internal experience factor reflect (non)reactivity to thoughts, feelings, and emotions, and therefore reflect reactivity to internal experience beyond thought content per se (Bernstein et al., 2015; Hadash et al., 2017).”
From The metacognitive processes of decentering scale: Development and initial validation of trait and state versions (2020) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“whereas immersion may amplify emotional and behavioral reactivity to internal experience”
From The metacognitive processes of decentering scale: Development and initial validation of trait and state versions (2020) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“It may be that meta-awareness, alone, is not directly associated with psychological well-being, and confers psychological benefit only through, or in combination with, non-reactivity and dis-identification with internal experience (Bernstein et al., 2015; Desrosiers, Vine, Curtiss, Klemanski, 2014).”
From The metacognitive processes of decentering scale: Development and initial validation of trait and state versions (2020) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“First, EFA and B-ESEM results from Studies 1 and 2 indicated that the MPoD-t was multidimensional and could be used to assess a global, higher-order decentering factor and three independent yet related lower-order metacognitive processes: meta-awareness (e.g., “I can watch my thoughts and emotions drift by like leaves on a stream.”), (dis)identification with internal experience (e.g., “My sense of”
From The metacognitive processes of decentering scale: Development and initial validation of trait and state versions (2020) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“a recent empirical study showing that greater practice of regulatory skills following mindfulness treatment was associated with increases in decentering”
From Moderators and mediators of emotion regulation therapy for psychologically distressed caregivers of cancer patients: secondary analyses from a randomized controlled trial. (2021) · cites this paper as [22]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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In the citing paper
“it has been theoretically argued and empirically documented, that attention regulation change precedes metacognitive regulation change because decentering, for instance, inherently relies on the individual paying attention to and being mindfully aware of their experience [22,46].”
From Moderators and mediators of emotion regulation therapy for psychologically distressed caregivers of cancer patients: secondary analyses from a randomized controlled trial. (2021) · cites this paper as [22]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Mindfulness-based decentering has been linked to greater acceptance, reduced avoidance-oriented responding, and less rigid self-focused appraisal (34, 36, 63).”
From The therapeutic role of self-transcendence in moral injury recovery: theory, mechanisms, and clinical implications (2026) · cites this paper as [63]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“One of the core principles of mindfulness is an increased ability to attend to one's thoughts with an attitude of openness and non-judgement, and it has been suggested that one of the key ways in which mindfulness transforms the relation with one's inner experiences (thoughts, emotions, feelings) is through a cognitive shift in perspective (see Bernstein et al., 2015; Shapiro et al., 2006), which”
From Mindfulness-based programs sustainably increase mental health: The role of cognitive fusion and mindfulness practice (2024) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In short, in line with previous research (Bernstein et al., 2015; Hoge et al., 2015; Lebois et al., 2015), the current study provided supporting evidence for the effectiveness of this mindfulness component compared to a sham intervention.”
From Mindfulness Effects on Anxiety: Disentangling the Role of Decentering and Treatment Expectations (2024) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“These include (1) affective cognitive control and (2) self-perspective processing, both of which have been posited as theoretical components of decentering.6 29”
From Protocol for a randomised controlled trial investigating an intervention to boost decentering in response to distressing mental experiences during adolescence: the decentering in adolescence study (DECADES) (2022) · cites this paper as [6]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Consistent with metacognitive process models, cognitive fusion can be associated with a deficit in metacognitive goal setting and strategies leading to the increased reactivity to dysfunctional thought content (102).”
From Developing a mechanism-based therapy for acute psychiatric inpatients with psychotic symptoms: an Intervention Mapping approach (2023) · cites this paper as [102]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Cognitive defusion has been found to generally improve functioning, reduce dysfunctional attitudes, anxiety, negative affect (102) and also post-traumatic-like symptoms (129) and sleep difficulties (130).”
From Developing a mechanism-based therapy for acute psychiatric inpatients with psychotic symptoms: an Intervention Mapping approach (2023) · cites this paper as [102]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Cognitive defusion for example shares significant variance with constructs such as deliteralization, decentering, distancing and detached mindfulness (102).”
From Developing a mechanism-based therapy for acute psychiatric inpatients with psychotic symptoms: an Intervention Mapping approach (2023) · cites this paper as [102]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Bernstein et al. (2015) posit that decentering helps individuals reduce time spent engaging in negative self-referentiality and allowing them to better attend to cues associated with goal directed behavior;”
From Distinct functional connectivities predict clinical response with emotion regulation therapy (2017) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al. (2015)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The process of decentering has been highlighted as a core “active ingredient” underpinning effective interventions for youth depression and anxiety [22,23]”
From A Virtual Reality–Based Cognitive Defusion Application for Youth Depression and Anxiety: Mixed Methods Experimental Study. (2025) · cites this paper as [23]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“variables considered in this study are close and may overlap conceptually, which could potentially affect the robustness of multiple linear regression.”
From Acceptance Is a Better Predictor of Anxiety, Depressive Symptoms, and Well-Being Compared to Other Emotional Competences. (2025) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“2) train meta-cognitive skills such as decentering (commonly used synonymously with defusion, reperceiving, distancing (Bernstein et al., 2015)), where the individual is invited to adopt a healthy distance both in time and space to their experience, e.g., Fresco et al., 2007”
From Mediators of acceptance and mindfulness-based therapies for anxiety and depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“For instance, according to Bernstein et al., 2015, decentering relies on a preceding attentional capacity.”
From Mediators of acceptance and mindfulness-based therapies for anxiety and depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Of note, decentering also shares some conceptual overlap (i.e., reduced emotional reactivity) with the related construct of defusion (see Bernstein et al., 2015); however, they”
From Changes in Decentering Across Cognitive Behavioral Group Therapy for Social Anxiety Disorder (2018) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“According to the metacognitive processes model of decentering (Bernstein et al., 2015), decentering involves meta-awareness, disidentification from internal experiences, and reduced reactivity to thought content.”
From Changes in Decentering Across Cognitive Behavioral Group Therapy for Social Anxiety Disorder (2018) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Decentering has been associated with a range of positive mental health outcomes, including lower levels of anxiety and depression symptoms (for an overview see Bernstein et al., 2015).”
From Changes in Decentering and Reappraisal Temporally Precede Symptom Reduction During Emotion Regulation Therapy for Generalized Anxiety Disorder With and Without Co-Occurring Depression. (2019) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“As decentering is a mechanism of action identified in models of mindfulness (Bernstein et al., 2015; Dahl, Lutz, & Davidson, 2015; Lau et al., 2006; Shapiro et al., 2006)”
From The metacognitive processes of decentering scale: Development and initial validation of trait and state versions (2020) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The ability to decenter from internal experiences is important for mental health.”
From The metacognitive processes of decentering scale: Development and initial validation of trait and state versions (2020) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Bernstein et al. (2015) proposed that meta-awareness involves awareness of internal experience or the processes unfolding in consciousness.”
From The metacognitive processes of decentering scale: Development and initial validation of trait and state versions (2020) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Synthesizing these literatures, Bernstein et al. (2015) proposed the metacognitive processes model of decentering. Decentering is conceptualized in this model as an emergent, multidimensional construct, comprised of three core metacognitive processes: meta-awareness, (dis)identification with internal experience, and (non)reactivity to thought content.”
From The metacognitive processes of decentering scale: Development and initial validation of trait and state versions (2020) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Findings from Hadash et al. (2017) and Naragon-Gainey and DeMarree (2017) are, in part, consistent with Bernstein et al.’s (2015) proposed metacognitive processes model of decentering.”
From The metacognitive processes of decentering scale: Development and initial validation of trait and state versions (2020) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“decentering may facilitate equanimity and behavioral choice (Ayduk & Kross, 2010; Bernstein et al., 2015; Kross & Ayduk, 2017; Kross & Grossmann, 2012; Shoham, Hadash, & Bernstein, 2018; Verduyn, Mechelen, Kross, Chezzi, & Bever, 2012).”
From The metacognitive processes of decentering scale: Development and initial validation of trait and state versions (2020) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“As mindfulness-based practices have been shown to increase the ability to observe one's thoughts and feelings as temporary events in the mind rather than as representing the truth (Bernstein et al., 2015), they appear to be a relevant means of reducing cognitive fusion, and related anxiety, and increasing well-being, although to date only preliminary data have been reported on such links (see the”
From Mindfulness-based programs sustainably increase mental health: The role of cognitive fusion and mindfulness practice (2024) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“One practice that has been found to effectively lower anxiety and distress is mindfulness (Bernstein et al., 2015; Hofmann et al., 2010; Hoge et al., 2015; Lebois et al., 2015).”
From Mindfulness Effects on Anxiety: Disentangling the Role of Decentering and Treatment Expectations (2024) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, conceptually, decentering is a more complex construct and relies on other processes, such as meta-awareness and deidentification from inner experience (Bernstein et al., 2015).”
From Measuring Decentering – Development and Validation of the French Version of the Experiences Questionnaire (EQ-F) (2024) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“significant associations between decentering and positive emotional regulation and positive appraisals in these caregivers, support reports of emotional detachment, a decentering-related metacognitive process [64] and separating the person from their condition as a coping strategy while providing end stage dementia care [65].”
From Mindfulness and Care Experience in Family Caregivers of Persons Living with Dementia (2023) · cites this paper as [64]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Decentring capacity has been crucially linked to psychopathology in various psychiatric disorders and shown to mediate treatment effects of mindfulness-based interventions (96).”
From Examining the Potential Synergistic Effects Between Mindfulness Training and Psychedelic-Assisted Therapy (2021) · cites this paper as [96]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“One possibility is that an ability to decenter actively protects individuals against, and promotes recovery from, anxiety and depression symptoms7,52–54.”
From Decentering as a core component in the psychological treatment and prevention of youth anxiety and depression: a narrative review and insight report (2021) · cites this paper as [7]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Psychological models have identified decentering as a metacognitive process that occurs naturally in individuals but can be cultivated by psychosocial interventions, especially interventions that include training in mindfulness meditation (e.g., Bernstein et al., 2015).”
From Distinct functional connectivities predict clinical response with emotion regulation therapy (2017) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Decentering is a broader concept that includes cognitive defusion and refers to the process of mentally separating oneself from one’s thoughts and emotions, becoming aware of underlying thinking processes, and reducing emotional reactivity to mental events [22,23].”
From A Virtual Reality–Based Cognitive Defusion Application for Youth Depression and Anxiety: Mixed Methods Experimental Study. (2025) · cites this paper as [23]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In addition, a review found that decentering was associated with lower levels of anxiety and depression (Bernstein et al., 2015).”
From Mediators of acceptance and mindfulness-based therapies for anxiety and depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 2015
In the citing paper
“Entraining this flexible, pliant, and sustained quality of attention across various contexts and modalities of practice helps individuals develop meta-awareness (i.e., healthy self-awareness) [47, 48].”
From All together now: utilizing common functional change principles to unify cognitive behavioral and mindfulness-based therapies (2019) · cites this paper as [47]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Bernstein, A., Hadash, Y., Lichtash, Y., Tanay, G., Shepherd, K., & Fresco, D. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Haifa (IL)
- Kent State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bernstein, Amit
- Venue
- Perspectives on Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2015-09
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 599-617
- ISSN
- 1745-6916 (ISSN-L)
- 1745-6924
- PMC
- PMC5103165
- OpenAlex
- W2337549616
- Cited by
- 539
- References
- 134
- Citations by year
- 2026: 62 · 2025: 75 · 2024: 50 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 63 · 2021: 55 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 38.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Perspectives on Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (R01HL119977)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Keywords
- decentering, metacognition, cognitive distancing, cognitive defusion, meta-awareness, mental health
- MeSH terms
- Metacognition, Humans, Mental Health, Models, Psychological, Self Concept
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