Behavioral variability, elimination of responses, and delay-of-reinforcement gradients in SHR and WKY rats
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BACKGROUND: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by a pattern of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that is cross-situational, persistent, and produces social and academic impairment. Research has shown that reinforcement processes are altered in ADHD. The dynamic developmental theory has suggested that a steepened delay-of-reinforcement gradient and deficient extinction of behavior produce behavioral symptoms of ADHD and increased behavioral variability. METHOD: The present study investigated behavioral variability and elimination of non-target responses during acquisition in an animal model of ADHD, the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR), using Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats as controls. The study also aimed at providing a novel approach to measuring delay-of-reinforcement gradients in the SHR and the WKY strains. The animals were tested in a modified operant chamber presenting 20 response alternatives. Nose pokes in a target hole produced water according to fixed interval (FI) schedules of reinforcement, while nose pokes in the remaining 19 holes either had no consequences or produced a sound or a short flickering of the houselight. The stimulus-producing holes were included to test whether light and sound act as sensory reinforcers in SHR.Data from the first six sessions testing FI 1 s were used for calculation of the initial distribution of responses. Additionally, Euclidean distance (measured from the center of each hole to the center of the target hole) and entropy (a measure of variability) were also calculated.Delay-of-reinforcement gradients were calculated across sessions by dividing the fixed interval into epochs and determining how much reinforcement of responses in one epoch contributed to responding in the next interval. RESULTS: Over the initial six sessions, behavior became clustered around the target hole. There was greater initial variability in SHR behavior, and slower elimination of inefficient responses compared to the WKY. There was little or no differential use of the stimulus-producing holes by either strain. For SHR, the reach of reinforcement (the delay-of-reinforcement gradient) was restricted to the preceding one second, whereas for WKY it extended about four times as far. CONCLUSION: The present findings support previous studies showing increased behavioral variability in SHR relative to WKY controls. A possibly related phenomenon may be the slowed elimination of non-operant nose pokes in SHR observed in the present study. The findings provide support for a steepened delay-of-reinforcement gradient in SHR as suggested in the dynamic developmental theory of ADHD. Altered reinforcement processes characterized by a steeper and shorter delay-of-reinforcement gradient may define an ADHD endophenotype.
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SHR rats display many behavioral characteristics apparent in ADHD, including poor performance in sustained attention tasks, hyperactivity, impulsivity, sensitivity to delay, and increased variation in performance of operant tasks.
“these rats have been shown to display many behavioral characteristics apparent in ADHD, including poor performance in sustained attention tasks, hyperactivity, impulsivity, sensitivity to delay, and increased variation in performance of operant tasks [451-453].”
From Reward circuitry dysfunction in psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders and genetic syndromes: animal models and clinical findings (2012) · cites this paper as [451]
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- Authors
- Johansen, E. B., Killeen, P. R., & Sagvolden, T.
- Affiliations
- University of Oslo (NO)
- Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters (NO)
- Corresponding author
- Johansen, Espen B
- ORCID
- Killeen, Peter R
- Venue
- Behavioral and Brain Functions
- Published
- 2007
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 60
- ISSN
- 1744-9081 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2219961
- OpenAlex
- W2109912798
- Cited by
- 56
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 1.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Behavioral and Brain Functions (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0236821)
- Universitetet i Oslo
- Norges Forskningsråd
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH066860)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, spontaneously hypertensive rats, behavioral variability, fixed-interval schedules, sensory reinforcement, animal model of ADHD
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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