The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
Cites
(1983) · Cited by 33,192
Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching
SHULMAN, L. S. (1986) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x015002004 · Cited by 18,546
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1956) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0043158 · Cited by 17,812
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.2.343 · Cited by 17,563
DEWEY, J. M. (1986) · The Educational Forum · doi:10.1080/00131728609335764 · Cited by 13,872
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048
Self-citation(1980) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 7,534
Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60422-3 · Cited by 7,216
The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
Cowan, N. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922 · Cited by 6,779
The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory
(2010) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/c2009-0-62209-1 · Cited by 6,035
Research works printed but not linked: 9
- Ausubel D. P., 1964, The Arithmetic Teacher, 11, 290
- Bernstein, D. A., Penner, L. A., Clarke-Stewart, A., Roy, E. J. & Wickens, C. D. (2003). Psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
- Clark R. E., 1998, Educational Technology, 38, 5
- Estes F., 1999, Educational Technology, 37, 5
- Glaser, R. (1987). Further notes toward a psychology of instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Kolb, D. A. & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33-57). New York: Wiley.
- Roblyer M. D., 1996, Learning and Leading With Technology, 24, 12
- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 3,301–3,400 of 6,869
Recomendação de Conteúdo em um Ambiente Colaborativo de Aprendizagem Baseada em Projetos
Acosta, O. C., Reategui, E. B., & Behar, P. A. (2018) · Revista Brasileira de Informática na Educação · doi:10.5753/rbie.2018.26.01.91 · Cited by 6
Barnes, T. N., Cipriano, C., Flynn, L. M., Rivers, S. E., & Xu, W. M. (2018) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2018.1465383 · Cited by 6
Adopting Value Creating Pedagogy and Problem Based Learning in Secondary Schools in Kenya
Amollo, O. P., Wanjiru, K. G., & Khavugwi, G. L. (2018) · World Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.22158/wjer.v5n3p269 · Cited by 6
“This finding agrees with an earlier one of Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), who found out that when students attain independent learning, they get motivated to share ideas in group work, apply new knowledge in problem solving and share responsibility.”
Resultde Campos, N. F., & Scarpa, D. L. (2018) · Revista Brasileira de Pesquisa em Educação em Ciências · doi:10.28976/1984-2686rbpec2018182727 · Cited by 6
Chung, Y., Song, J., 우연경, et al. (2017) · The Korean Journal of Educational Methodology Studies · doi:10.17927/tkjems.2017.29.1.211 · Cited by 6
Unterrichtsbeispiele vergleichen
Heemsoth, T. (2018) · German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research · doi:10.1007/s12662-018-0551-y
The I files, the truth is out there: science teachers’ constructs of inquiry
Bevins, S., Price, G., & Booth, J. E. (2019) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2019.1568605 · Cited by 10
“For example, some authors suggest that time constraints and over-burdened curricula may impede science teacher’s use of inquiry (Kirschner et al., 2006) while others state that it is often the case that science teachers' have limited experience with 'inquiry in a formal scientific sense' (Crawford,…”
BackgroundKo, A. J., & Fincher, S. A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.005 · Cited by 7
Designing Rich, Evidence-Based Learning Experiences in STEM Higher Education
Allan, C. N., Crough, J., Green, D. G., & Brent, G. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-6982-7_18 · Cited by 6
Kompetenzförderung beim Experimentieren
Kremer, K., Möller, A., Arnold, J. C., & Mayer, J. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-58443-9_7 · Cited by 6
Remedial Inquiry-Based Science Education: Experimental Evidence From Peru
Saavedra, J. E., Näslund-Hadley, E. I., & Alfonso, M. (2019) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/0162373719867081 · Cited by 7
“Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry-learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundStudents’ Perceptions of Flipped Approach in EFL Classroom: A Survey Research
Muhlisoh, E. D., Santihastuti, A., & Wahjuningsih, E. (2020) · JETL (Journal Of Education Teaching and Learning) · doi:10.26737/jetl.v5i2.1728 · Cited by 6
Main, S., Backhouse, M., Jackson, R., & Hill, S. (2020) · The Australian Journal of Language and Literacy · doi:10.1007/bf03652051 · Cited by 6
Inquiry-Based Learning in Action
Lower‐Hoppe, L. M., Brgoch, S. M., Chen, Y.-J., & Sutherland, S. (2020) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-4360-3.ch003 · Cited by 6
The Challenges of Online Learning in Covid-19 Pandemic Era
Sudiapermana, E., & Muslikhah, M. (2020) · doi:10.2991/assehr.k.201219.011 · Cited by 6
Jo, S., & Seo, Y. S. (2021) · Research Papers in Education · doi:10.1080/02671522.2021.1961294 · Cited by 7
“…of a teacher-centred approach on student learning outcomes in different educational fields, including maths and science (Adams and Engelmann 1996; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006; Klahr and Nigam 2004; Przychodzin et al. 2004), special education (Ganz and Flores 2008; Kinder, Kubina, and…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSpensberger, F., Kollar, I., & Pankofer, S. (2021) · Journal of Social Work Education · doi:10.1080/10437797.2021.1963892 · Cited by 5
“For example, Kirschner et al. (2006) argued that by exposing learners to complex problems that are too difficult for them to solve on their own, their working memory capacity is very likely to be overstrained, causing cognitive overload (for a more extensive description of cognitive load theory,…”
BackgroundVogel, F., Kollar, I., Ufer, S., Strohmaier, A., Reiss, K. M., & Fischer, F. (2021) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2021.1961098 · Cited by 7
“From a cognitive perspective, a less detailed CSCL script (addressing a high scripting level) may not be sufficient for learners who have not yet developed internal script components at the lower levels (e.g. Kirschner et al., 2006; Rienties et al., 2012).”
BackgroundScalable Science Education via Online Cooperative Questioning
Hilton, C. B., Goldwater, M. B., Hancock, D., Clemson, M., Huang, A., & Denyer, G. S. (2021) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.19-11-0249 · Cited by 7
“Having students author questions with minimal guidance is therefore unlikely to fully elicit the beneficial cognitive processes described earlier, as has been shown for other learning designs that overwhelm students with task complexity (Kirschner et al. , 2006).”
First Principles of Instruction Revisited
Merrill, M. (2021) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-26248-8_56-2 · Cited by 12
Nuraydin, S., Stricker, J., & Schneider, M. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105353 · Cited by 9
Teacher learning about collaborative learning: a case study
Li, D., Ding, M., & Cai, J. (2022) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-022-01350-w · Cited by 6
Using Guided Play to Facilitate Young Children’s Exploratory Learning
Yu, Y. (2022) · Empowering teaching and learning through policies and practice · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-7405-1_10 · Cited by 11
Estes, J. S. (2015) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-8363-1.ch004 · Cited by 6
Orchestrating Invention Activities through Teacher's Multilayered Work
Sormunen, K., & Viilo, M. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003287360-12 · Cited by 6
Preservice Chemistry Teachers’ Understanding of Surface Tension through Guided-Inquiry
Gençer, S., & Ekici, F. (2022) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.2c00330 · Cited by 8
Analysis of the Deep Learning Strategies Questionnaire with Ecuadorian students
Yaguarema, M., Jimmy Zambrano, R., & Salavarría, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.1004874 · Cited by 11
“This support should be given with a scaffolding approach (Kirschner et al., 2006; Van Merrieënboer and Kirschner, 2018): the first learning tasks should have a high level of support or external regulation (e.”
MethodYeo, S., Shim, H.-J., Hwang, S., & Campbell, T. G. (2022) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-022-10332-z · Cited by 8
“This approach has been called various names such as unguided learning (Kirschner et al., 2006), discovery learning (Mayer, 2004), and inquirybased learning (Pedaste et al., 2015).”
MethodInquiry as a Part of Educational Reality in Technical Education
Kožuchova, M., Barnová, S., & Stebila, J. (2022) · Emerging Science Journal · doi:10.28991/esj-2022-sied-016 · Cited by 6
“Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundResultAn empirical study of training transfer in an apprenticeship programme for conducive workforce
Suhaimy, M. H., Sumardi, W. A., Sumardi, W. H., & Anshari, M. (2022) · International Journal of Training Research · doi:10.1080/14480220.2022.2152471 · Cited by 11
“Kirschner et al. (2006) claimed traditional training is effective for near transfer due to ample support and instructions.”
BackgroundMusical Futures in New Zealand: A study in recontextualisation
Wang, A., & McPhail, G. (2023) · International Journal of Music Education · doi:10.1177/02557614221141975 · Cited by 5
“…into education with some prominence, 6 for example cognitive load theory (De Bruychere et al., 2015; Kirschner & van Merriënboer, 2013; Kirschner et al., 2006; Marzano, 2011; Mayer, 2004; Sweller, 2016, 2021) as well as other ideas related to visible paedagogies such as Hattie’s work…”
BackgroundTannert, S., Eitel, A., Marder, J., Seidel, T., Renkl, A., & Glogger‐Frey, I. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.974696 · Cited by 23
“Based on the finding that learning is better when material and task are known in advance (Paas and Van Merriënboer, 1994; Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller et al., 2007; Schwonke et al., 2013), Study 2b introduced an information on the utility and use of signals.”
BackgroundMethodLim, S.-A., Jung, J. Y., & Kalyuga, S. (2023) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-023-09616-w · Cited by 6
“One of the ways to achieve this may be the avoidance of any information or activities that may contribute to unnecessary (extraneous) cognitive load, particularly information or activities that are not directly relevant to acquiring the desired schemas (Hsu et al., 2015; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundChallenges and Tradeoffs of “Good” Teaching: The Pursuit of Multiple Educational Outcomes
Blazar, D., & Pollard, C. (2023) · Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1177/00224871231155830 · Cited by 11
“Without downplaying the reasons why many individuals advocate for inquiry-oriented instruction, some teacher educators (Kennedy, 2005; Lampert, 2001) and developmental psychologists (Kirschner et al., 2006) have questioned whether students themselves enjoy taking on more responsibility for their learning and higher ex…”
BackgroundWhat do students think about differentiation and within-class achievement grouping?
Prast, E., Stroet, K., Koornneef, A., & Wilderjans, T. (2023) · Frontline Learning Research · doi:10.14786/flr.v11i1.1079 · Cited by 6
“For example, direct explicit instruction may be highly effective for students with low prior knowledge but not for students with high prior knowledge (Kalyuga, 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundBecker, F., Wirzberger, M., Pammer-Schindler, V., Srinivas, S., & Lieder, F. (2023) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/jdm.2023.16 · Cited by 6
“This is good news, given that prior work suggested that reflection only benefits people who already have considerable domain knowledge (Kirschner et al., 2006; Renner et al., 2020).”
BackgroundŠašić, S. Š., Nikčević-Milković, A., & Cindrić, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1281438 · Cited by 6
Development of Transdisciplinary and Complex Learning in Inclusive Educational Practices
Agreda, N. H., González, M. D. S., & Rodríguez-López, R. (2024) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14030222 · Cited by 6
“This means that students are required to make informed decisions and collaborate in order to solve complex problems [14].”
BackgroundCope, B., Kalantzis, M., & Tzirides, A. O. (2024) · Studies in bilingualism · doi:10.1075/sibil.66.13cop · Cited by 7
Choi, S., Ju, H., Kim, J. S., & Song, J. (2024) · Contemporary Educational Technology · doi:10.30935/cedtech/14418 · Cited by 7
Amponsah, K. D., Mensah, R. O., Aheto, S.-P. K., Commey-Mintah, P., Tutu‐Danquah, C., & Cobbinah, D. (2024) · African Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.4314/ajosi.v7i1.13 · Cited by 6
Fostering creative thinking skills through digital storytelling
Nasir, W. M. F. W. M., Halim, L., & Arsad, N. M. (2024) · Journal of Pedagogical Research · doi:10.33902/jpr.202427318 · Cited by 10
Gutiérrez-Santos, S., Mavrikis, M., & Magoulas, G. D. (2010) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-15431-7_19 · Cited by 6
“[8]), research in the learning sciences suggests that students require explicit support and guidance to learn from their experience [ 9 ].”
BackgroundSorden, S. D. (2011) · Cited by 6
Kodavali, S. K., Gilbert, S. B., & Blessing, S. B. (2010) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-13437-1_72 · Cited by 6
Teacher-training, ICT, creativity, MOOC, Moodle - What pedagogy?
Slavi Stoyanov, A., Sloep, P., de Bie, M., & Hermans, V. (2014) · DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) · Cited by 6
Kierkegaard on the Need for Indirect Communication
Aumann, A. (2008) · PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) · Cited by 6
Chinese Students' Engagement with Mathematics Learning.
Norton, S. J., & Zhang, Q. (2013) · Griffith Research Online · Cited by 6
Santos, L. M. A. (2010) · Informática na educação teoria & prática · doi:10.22456/1982-1654.12322 · Cited by 6
Inquiry-based Instruction and Relating Appeals of Pedagogical Theories and Practices
Dostál, J., & Klement, M. (2015) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.173 · Cited by 6
Results from an action research approach for designing CS1 learning environments in Tanzania
Apiola, M., Moisseinen, N., & Tedre, M. (2012) · 2022 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2012.6462321 · Cited by 6
“Most of that practice is typically conducted on students’ own time, in an environment that educational psychologists consider to be “minimally guided”, and hence not suitable for novice learners [3].”
BackgroundInfluentialRecentering Pedagogy in an Age of Narcissism
Watters, A. O. (2013) · The Journal of General Education · doi:10.1353/jge.2013.0006 · Cited by 5
“But a problem with this approach, as Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) point out, is that it is not effective for novice learners, who must hold so much information in working memory that they do not efficiently make the changes to long-term memory that constitute learning.”
BackgroundRouvrais, S., Mallet, J., & Vinouze, B. (2010) · 2022 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2010.5673639 · Cited by 6
“These results may also point out the strenuous challenge of the reflective debriefing [15].”
BackgroundHuman Tutorial Instruction in the Raw
Gil, Y. (2015) · ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1145/2531920 · Cited by 6
Designing a RPG Game for Learning of Mathematic Concepts
Chen, M., & Ren, H.-Y. (2013) · IIAI International Conference on Advanced Applied Informatics (IIAI-AAI) · doi:10.1109/iiai-aai.2013.51 · Cited by 6
Chilson, P. B., & Yeary, M. B. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Education · doi:10.1109/te.2011.2164796 · Cited by 6
“Using this information, a guided instructional approach is taken in which students are asked to conduct a series of specific exercises designed to illuminate the degree to which radar cross sections are dependent on environmental conditions and the wavelength of the probing radar [23].”
BackgroundStuurman, S., van Gastel, B. E., & Passier, H. J. M. (2014) · Computer Science Education Research Conference · doi:10.1145/2691352.2691360 · Cited by 7
“That guidance should tell students how to recognize an acceptable solution and should provide guidance to the solution process: procedural information is required when one offers authentic tasks to enable complex learning [Kirschner et al. 2006].”
BackgroundInitial teacher development in science: the impact of constructivist‐informed practice on learning
Patterson, E. W. (2011) · Teacher Development · doi:10.1080/13664530.2011.555225 · Cited by 6
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark ( 2006 ) identified a range of terms that have been used synonymously with constructivist learning, namely discovery learning, problem‐based learning, inquiry learning and experiential learning.”
BackgroundSchifman, L. A., Cardace, D., Kortz, K. M., Saul, K., Gilfert, A., Veeger, A. I., & Murray, D. P. (2013) · Journal of Media Literacy Education · doi:10.5408/12-326.1 · Cited by 6
“Guided inquiry has been argued to be more effective and more efficient than open inquiry to teach students new concepts (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPreschoolers' learning about buoyancy: Does it help to give away the answer?
Baker, H., Haussmann, A., Kloos, H., et al. (2011) · IEEE International Conference on Development and Learning (ICDL) · doi:10.1109/devlrn.2011.6037373 · Cited by 6
Scaffolding Early Clinical Learning for Students in Communication Sciences and Disorders
Austin, L. (2013) · Perspectives on Administration and Supervision · doi:10.1044/aas23.3.86 · Cited by 6
EFFECTS OF EXAMPLE-PROBLEM BASED LEARNING ON TRANSFER PERFORMANCE IN CIRCUIT THEORY
Jalani, N. H., & Sern, L. C. (2014) · Journal of Technical Education and Training · Cited by 6
Research on the Applications of Multimedia Technique in the Mathematical Teaching and Education
Pang, T. (2015) · Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research/Advances in social science, education and humanities research · doi:10.2991/icemet-15.2015.104 · Cited by 6
“At the beginning of the math class we focus the attention of students and bring their thoughts into a specific learning situations, stimulate the students' strong interest in learning and strong thirst for knowledge, success or failure of a math class plays an important role if our mathematics teacher in the daily tea…”
BackgroundADJUSTING COGNITIVE LOAD TO THE STUDENT'S LEVEL OF EXPERTISE FOR INCREASING MOTIVATION TO LEARN
Leppink, J. (2010) · Cited by 6
Hands-on experimental activities in inquiry-based scienceeducation
Trnová, E., & Trna, J. (2011) · Cited by 6
Class P rep: A peer review system for class preparation
Park, J. (2015) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12390 · Cited by 6
Breaking the Cycle of Shame: Socratic Teaching Methods to Enhance Critical Thinking
Carvalho-Grevious, M. (2013) · Journal of Baccalaureate Social Work · doi:10.18084/basw.18.suppl-1.b17001w557j16785 · Cited by 6
Exploring Deviation in Inquiry Learning: Degrees of Freedom or Source of Problems?
Manske, S., Chounta, I., Rodríguez‐Triana, M. J., et al. (2015) · International Conference on Computers in Education · Cited by 6
Corte, E. D. (2015) · Páginas de Educación · doi:10.22235/pe.v8i2.690 · Cited by 6
Utilizing a Simulation within an Online School Technology Leadership Course
Strycker, J. (2016) · Online Learning · doi:10.24059/olj.v20i1.607 · Cited by 6
“This seemed to go beyond concerns like disorganized knowledge (Alfieri et al., 2011), incomplete knowledge (Veenman et al., 2014), or even cognitive overload (Kirschner et al., 2006; Roll et al., 2014).”
McHenry, N. C., & Borger, L. (2013) · The Electronic Journal of Science Education · Cited by 6
A Rich Environment for Active Learning (REAL)
Robinson, H., Phillips, A. S., Sheffield, A., & Moore, M. (2014) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-6280-3.ch003 · Cited by 6
Boundaries of the Educational Imagination
Hugo, W. (2015) · African Minds eBooks · doi:10.47622/978-1-928331-01-8 · Cited by 6
Pazos, P., & Magpili, N. (2015) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/p.24091 · Cited by 6
Peng, J., Sergis, S., Wang, M., & Sampson, D. G. (2017) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3041021.3054158 · Cited by 7
“The complexity of such processes may generate heavy cognitive load to learners [19], but is often underestimated by instructors or experts for whom many of the requisite processes have become largely subconscious because of years of experience.”
BackgroundTsortanidou, X., Karagiannidis, C., & Koumpis, A. (2018) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v13i01.7614 · Cited by 6
Computerunterstütztes kollaboratives Lernen
Vogel, F., & Fischer, F. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-54368-9_3 · Cited by 9
Effective Professional Development in Agriscience Education: An Examination of Core Features
Shoulders, C. W., & Myers, B. E. (2014) · Journal of Agricultural Education · doi:10.5032/jae.2014.01167 · Cited by 7
Li, H.-C., & Tsai, T.-L. (2018) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-018-0393-2 · Cited by 8
Students are not inferential-misfits: Naturalising logic in the science classroom
Ferguson, J. P. (2018) · Educational Philosophy and Theory · doi:10.1080/00131857.2018.1516141 · Cited by 6
“Indeed, there are those who question the value of discovery, even that framed by guided inquiry, and advocate instead for direct instruction (e.g. Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller, Kirschner, & Clark, 2007).”
BackgroundMottaghi, N., & Talkhabi, M. (2019) · Journal of Curriculum and Teaching · doi:10.5430/jct.v8n1p46 · Cited by 8
Students As Teachers and Communicators
Simon, B., Hundhausen, C. D., McDowell, C., Werner, L., Hu, H. H., & Kussmaul, C. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.030 · Cited by 6
Quang, L., Hoàng, L. H., Chuan, V. D., Nam, N. H., Anh, N. T. T., & Nhung, V. T. H. (2015) · Journal of Education Society and Behavioural Science · doi:10.9734/bjesbs/2015/19429 · Cited by 54
Schülerlabore und Lehr-Lern-Labore
Scharfenberg, F., Möller, A., Kaufmann, K., & Bogner, F. X. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-58443-9_13 · Cited by 6
Stock market trading simulations: Assessing the impact on student learning
Smith, C., & Gibbs, S. C. (2019) · Journal of Education for Business · doi:10.1080/08832323.2019.1643279 · Cited by 6
“As it has been argued in prior research (Kirschner et al., 2006) that ill-conceived experiential components can actively detract from student success, a two-sided t test is used to compare the mean scores.”
MethodRobinson-Kooi, S., & Hammond, L. S. (2020) · Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties · doi:10.1080/19404158.2020.1752747 · Cited by 6
“These results may indicate that, as Kirschner et al. (2006) reported from previous studies, the mainly constructivist teaching approaches used during the usual literacy programme in the comparison class were not as effective as the EI approaches in spelling and dictation components used in the…”
ResultDahlen, O., Lervik, A., Aarøen, O., Cabriolu, R., Lyng, R., & van Erp, T. S. (2020) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.22249 · Cited by 6
“Although it is recognized that children may benefit more in learning from instructional guidance [14, 13], the explicit aim of higher education is to foster students to become self ‐ regulated life ‐ long learners, which implies that students should benefit from being trained in internal guidance…”
BackgroundBuckley, J. (2020) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-020-09588-9 · Cited by 8
Is Inquiry Learning Unjust? Cognitive Load Theory and the Democratic Ends of Education
Tanchuk, N. (2020) · Journal of Philosophy of Education · doi:10.1111/1467-9752.12435 · Cited by 8
Work-in-Progress–The ARI2VE Model for Augmented Reality Books
Buchner, J., & Jeghiazaryan, A. (2020) · International Conference of the Immersive Learning Research Network (iLRN) · doi:10.23919/ilrn47897.2020.9155110 · Cited by 7
“Younger and less experienced learners can quickly become overwhelmed by such methods and be hindered in their learning processes [13], [14].”
Király, G. (2020) · Vezetéstudomány / Budapest Management Review · doi:10.14267/veztud.2020.09.04 · Cited by 6
Perrella, A., Dam, H., Martin, L., Maclachlan, J. C., & Fenton, N. (2020) · Teaching & Learning Inquiry The ISSOTL Journal · doi:10.20343/teachlearninqu.8.2.7 · Cited by 6
“Mentorship, above all, dictates the undergraduate student experience, with minimally guided instruction of project- and inquiry-based learning resulting in ineffective teaching (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundAnas, L. (2019) · JTP - Jurnal Teknologi Pendidikan · doi:10.21009/jtp.v21i1.10570 · Cited by 6
Engaging the Experts to Embrace the Future: An Interactive Professional Learning Experience
Riley, J., Eldridge, S. W., & Venkatesh, R. (2021) · Issues in Accounting Education · doi:10.2308/issues-19-064 · Cited by 6
VERITAS: Mind-Mapping in Virtual Reality
Sims, R. A., & Karnik, A. (2021) · International Conference of the Immersive Learning Research Network (iLRN) · doi:10.23919/ilrn52045.2021.9459348 · Cited by 6
“[10] state that inquiry based learning is key to stimulating students’ desire to learn more and discover information semi-independently of the teacher and/or classroom.”
BackgroundTwyman, J. S. (2021) · Perspectives on Behavior Science · doi:10.1007/s40614-021-00309-8 · Cited by 13
“…evaluating guided models of instruction (e.g., DI) to minimally guided models (i.e., discovery, inquiry, experiential, and constructivist learning), Kirschner et al. (2006) found that providing only minimal guidance during instruction “simply does not work” (as paraphrased from the title:Why…”
BackgroundKibirige, I., & Maake, M. R. (2021) · Journal of Technology and Science Education · doi:10.3926/jotse.1295 · Cited by 6
Lehren und Lernen mit neuen Medien
Fischer, F., Mandl, H., & Todorova, A. (2010) · VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-92015-3_40 · Cited by 6
Whether to flip Extreme Apprenticeship: which is more effective in programming instruction?
Hopcan, S., Polat, E., & Albayrak, E. (2022) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-022-11055-y · Cited by 6
“In fact, educational psychologists argue that minimal guidance is less effective, par - ticularly for novice learners, in challenging subjects such as programming due to humans’ cognitive architecture (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
