The DOI matches its Crossref record; 33 of the 33 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Self‐Explanations: How Students Study and Use Examples in Learning to Solve Problems
Open accessAbstract
The present paper analyzes the self‐generated explanations (from talk‐aloud protocols) that “Good” and “Poor” students produce while studying worked‐out examples of mechanics problems, and their subsequent reliance on examples during problem solving. We find that “Good” students learn with understanding: They generate many explanations which refine and expand the conditions for the action parts of the example solutions, and relate these actions to principles in the text. These self‐explanations are guided by accurate monitoring of their own understanding and misunderstanding. Such learning results in example‐independent knowledge and in a better understanding of the principles presented in the text. “Poor” students do not generate sufficient self‐explanations, monitor their learning inaccurately, and subsequently rely heavily on examples. We then discuss the role of self‐explanations in facilitating problem solving, as well as the adequacy of current AI models of explanation‐based learning to account for these psychological findings.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This mechanism resembles prompted self-explanation, an instructional technique that encourages learners to articulate their reasoning and has been shown to support monitoring of understanding, identification of knowledge gaps, and integration of new information with prior knowledge (Bisra et al., 2018;Chi et al., 1989).”
From Think Before You Accept: Can Written Justification Reduce Uncritical Uptake of AI Writing Suggestions? (2026) · cites this paper as Chi et al., 1989
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The self-explanation effect was demonstrated independently of cognitive load theory (Chi et al. 1989) but can be explained by the theory.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Chi et al. 1989
In the citing paper
“Moreover, researchers have advocated active learning because it enables learners to connect new information with the knowledge they already possess (Chi et al. 1989;Mayer 2001;Wittrock 1974).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Chi et al. 1989
In the citing paper
“Asking learners to explain to themselves aloud what they have understood from a learning task has proved to be an effective instructional method (Chi et al. 1989;Renkl 1997;Renkl and Atkinson 2002).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Chi et al. 1989
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Axten, N., Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1973) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2063712 · Cited by 6,886
Categorization and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices*
Chi, M. T. H., Feltovich, P. J., & Glaser, R. (1981) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0502_2 · Cited by 5,248
Why a Diagram is (Sometimes) Worth Ten Thousand Words
Larkin, J. H., & Simon, H. A. (1987) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1551-6708.1987.tb00863.x · Cited by 3,855
The role of theories in conceptual coherence.
Murphy, G. L., & Medin, D. L. (1985) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.92.3.289 · Cited by 2,805
Advances in Instructional Psychology
(2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315864341 · Cited by 2,538
(2014) · doi:10.4324/9781315799681 · Cited by 2,174
Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence
Sternberg, R. J. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315808246 · Cited by 1,771
Eye fixations and cognitive processes
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1976) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(76)90015-3 · Cited by 1,730
Advances in the psychology of human intelligence
Eysenck, H. J. (1983) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(83)90111-0 · Cited by 1,590
Michelene, T. H., Glaser, R. A., & Rees, E. T. (1981) · Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) · Cited by 1,529
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Brown A.L., 1983, Cognitive development (Vol. III of P.H. Mussen, Ed., Handbook of child psychology, 77
- Halliday D., 1981, Fundamentals of physics.
- Lewis C.H., 1982, Proceedings of the conference of human factors in computer systems
- 10.1007/BF00116250 · DOI · Paper page
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–300 of 1,022
Learning-by-teaching. Evidence and implications as a pedagogical mechanism
Durán, D. (2016) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2016.1156011 · Cited by 211
Determining the effectiveness of prompts for self-regulated learning in problem-solving scenarios
Ifenthaler, D. (2012) · Deakin Research Online (Deakin University) · Cited by 202
Legare, C. H. (2011) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01691.x · Cited by 202
Explanation and Evidence in Informal Argument
Brem, S. K., & Rips, L. J. (2000) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog2404_2 · Cited by 202
Promoting Helping Behavior in Cooperative Small Groups in Middle School Mathematics
Webb, N. M., & Farivar, S. H. (1994) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312031002369 · Cited by 309
Crippen, K. J., & Earl, B. L. (2005) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2005.11.018 · Cited by 212
Suthers, D. D., Vatrapu, R., Medina, R., Joseph, S., & Dwyer, N. (2007) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2006.10.007 · Cited by 197
Using Latent Semantic Analysis to Evaluate the Contributions of Students in AutoTutor
Graesser, A. C., Hastings, P., Wiemer-Hastings, K., Harter, D., Tutoring Research Group Tutoring Research Group, & Person, N. K. (2000) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1076/1049-4820(200008)8:2;1-b;ft129 · Cited by 198
The cognitive challenges of effective teaching
Chew, S. L., & Cerbin, W. J. (2020) · The Journal of Economic Education · doi:10.1080/00220485.2020.1845266 · Cited by 292
Craig, S. D., D’Mello, S. K., Witherspoon, A. M., & Graesser, A. C. (2008) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930701516759 · Cited by 207
Needham, D. R., & Begg, I. M. (1991) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197150 · Cited by 199
Acquisition of procedural skills from examples.
Anderson, J. R., & Fincham, J. M. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.20.6.1322 · Cited by 195
Innovations in Educational Psychology: Perspectives on Learning, Teaching, and Human Development
Preiss, D., & Sternberg, R. J. (2010) · Cited by 194
Towards a Systematic Study of Representational Guidance for Collaborative Learing Discourse
Suthers, D. D. (2020) · ScholarSpace (University of Hawaii at Manoa) · doi:10.3217/jucs-007-03-0254 · Cited by 196
Learning From Social Studies Texts
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Gromoll, E. W. (1989) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0602_1 · Cited by 194
Learning-to-learn strategies as a basis for effective lifelong learning
Cornford, I. R. (2002) · International Journal of Lifelong Education · doi:10.1080/02601370210141020 · Cited by 213
Deep-Level Comprehension of Science Texts
Best, R. M., Rowe, M., Ozuru, Y., & McNamara, D. S. (2005) · Topics in Language Disorders · doi:10.1097/00011363-200501000-00007 · Cited by 192
van Gog, T., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2007) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.03.003 · Cited by 202
Constraining Novices to Perform Expertlike Problem Analyses: Effects on Schema Acquisition
Dufresne, R. J., Gerace, W. J., Hardiman, P. T., & Mestre, J. P. (1992) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls0203_3 · Cited by 190
The Role of Explanation in Discovery and Generalization: Evidence From Category Learning
Williams, J. J., & Lombrozo, T. (2010) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1551-6709.2010.01113.x · Cited by 190
The generality vs domain-specificity of metacognitive skills in novice learning across domains
Veenman, M. V. J., Elshout, J. J., & Meijer, J. M. (1997) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(96)00025-4 · Cited by 190
The science of effective learning with spacing and retrieval practice
Carpenter, S. K., Pan, S. C., & Butler, A. C. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-022-00089-1 · Cited by 184
Inconsistency With Prior Knowledge Triggers Children’s Causal Explanatory Reasoning
Legare, C. H., Gelman, S. A., & Wellman, H. M. (2010) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01443.x · Cited by 187
Categorization as causal reasoning
Rehder, B. (2003) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/s0364-0213(03)00068-5 · Cited by 187
Berthold, K., Eysink, T. H. S., & Renkl, A. (2009) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9051-z · Cited by 238
Mind Bugs: The origins of procedural misconceptions
Pirolli, P. L. T. (1991) · Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0004-3702(91)90072-r · Cited by 182
Motivation and performance in a game-based intelligent tutoring system.
Jackson, G. T., & McNamara, D. S. (2013) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0032580 · Cited by 186
The effects of physical prototyping and group work on the reduction of design fixation
Youmans, R. J. (2010) · Design Studies · doi:10.1016/j.destud.2010.08.001 · Cited by 194
Patchan, M. M., & Schunn, C. D. (2015) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-015-9353-x · Cited by 181
Gerjets, P., Scheiter, K., & Catrambone, R. (2006) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.02.007 · Cited by 178
The relationship between HRM, technology innovation and performance in China
Li, Y., Zhao, Y., & Liu, Y. (2006) · International Journal of Manpower · doi:10.1108/01437720610708284 · Cited by 179
Scrutinising usability evaluation: does thinking aloud affect behaviour and mental workload?
Hertzum, M., Hansen, K. D., & Andersen, H. H. K. (2009) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/01449290701773842 · Cited by 177
Gerjets, P., & Scheiter, K. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_5 · Cited by 176
Computer-supported example-based learning: When instructional explanations reduce self-explanations
Schworm, S., & Renkl, A. (2004) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2004.08.011 · Cited by 188
STyLE-OLM: Interactive Open Learner Modelling
Dimitrova, V. G. (2003) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.3233/irg-2003-13(1)06 · Cited by 175
Subgoals, Context, and Worked Examples in Learning Computing Problem Solving
Morrison, B. B., Margulieux, L. E., & Guzdial, M. (2015) · Proceedings of the eleventh annual International Conference on International Computing Education Research · doi:10.1145/2787622.2787733 · Cited by 174
Assessing Reading Skill With a Think-Aloud Procedure and Latent Semantic Analysis
Magliano, J. P., & Millis, K. (2003) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2103_02 · Cited by 177
Procedural Instructions, Principles, and Examples
Eiríksdóttir, E., & Catrambone, R. (2011) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720811419154 · Cited by 193
Reading Strategies and Hypertext Comprehension
Salmerón, L., Cañas, J. J., Kintsch, W., & Fajardo, I. (2005) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1207/s15326950dp4003_1 · Cited by 173
Selective effects of explanation on learning during early childhood
Legare, C. H., & Lombrozo, T. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.03.001 · Cited by 173
A Computer-Based Game that Promotes Mathematics Learning More than a Conventional Approach
McLaren, B. M., Adams, D. M., Mayer, R. E., & Forlizzi, J. (2016) · International Journal of Game-Based Learning · doi:10.4018/ijgbl.2017010103 · Cited by 173
Craig, S. D., Sullins, J., Witherspoon, A. M., & Gholson, B. (2006) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2404_4 · Cited by 174
The Effect of Instructional Explanations on Learning From Scientific Texts
Coleman, E. B., Brown, A. L., & Rivkin, I. D. (1997) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls0604_1 · Cited by 173
Johnson, C. I., & Mayer, R. E. (2010) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.025 · Cited by 180
Balancing breadth and depth of expertise for innovation: A 3M story
Boh, W. F., Evaristo, R., & Ouderkirk, A. J. (2013) · Research Policy · doi:10.1016/j.respol.2013.10.009 · Cited by 175
Innovation in Organizations: A Multi-Level Perspective on Creativity
Mumford, M. D., & Hunter, S. T. (2005) · Research in multi-level issues · doi:10.1016/s1475-9144(05)04001-4 · Cited by 168
Argumentation, Computer Support, and the Educational Context of Confronting Cognitions
Andriessen, J. E. B., Baker, M. J., & Suthers, D. (2003) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-0781-7_1 · Cited by 167
The worked example effect, the generation effect, and element interactivity.
Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2015) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000018 · Cited by 167
Benefitting InfoVis with Visual Difficulties
Hullman, J., Adar, E., & Shah, P. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2011.175 · Cited by 159
A Comparative Analysis of Cognitive Tutoring and Constraint-Based Modeling
Mitrović, A., Koedinger, K. R., & Martin, B. (2003) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-44963-9_42 · Cited by 166
Exploration, Explanation, and Parent–Child Interaction in Museums
Callanan, M. A., Legare, C. H., Sobel, D. M., Jaeger, G., Letourneau, S. M., McHugh, S. R., Willard, A. K., Brinkman, A. H., Finiasz, Z., Rubio, É., et al. (2020) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12412 · Cited by 182
Do we click in the right way? A meta-analytic review of clicker-integrated instruction
Chien, Y., Chang, Y.-H., & Chang, C. (2015) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2015.10.003 · Cited by 185
Cognitive activities in complex science text and diagrams
Cromley, J. G., Snyder, L. E., & Luciw-Dubas, U. A. (2009) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2009.10.002 · Cited by 165
Writing learning journals: Instructional support to overcome learning-strategy deficits
Hübner, S., Nückles, M., & Renkl, A. (2009) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.12.001 · Cited by 165
Patchan, M. M., Schunn, C. D., & Correnti, R. J. (2016) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000103 · Cited by 165
Aleven, V. (2003) · Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0004-3702(03)00105-x · Cited by 164
Computer-Mediated Argumentative Interactions for the Co-Elaboration of Scientific Notions
Baker, M. J. (2003) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-0781-7_3 · Cited by 164
The effects of self-explanation training on students' problem solving in high-school mathematics
Wong, R. M. F., Lawson, M. J., & Keeves, J. P. (2002) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(01)00027-5 · Cited by 163
White, B. Y., Shimoda, T. A., & Frederiksen, J. R. (1999) · Cited by 163
Judging a book by its cover: Interpretative effects of content on problem-solving transfer
Bassok, M., & Solomon, K. O. (1995) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197236 · Cited by 162
Gestures at Work in Sense-Making Science Talk
Crowder, E. M. (1996) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls0503_2 · Cited by 161
Goals and Learning in Microworlds
Miller, C. S., Lehman, J. F., & Koedinger, K. R. (1999) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/s0364-0213(99)00007-5 · Cited by 158
Studying Physics Texts: Differences in Study Processes Between Good and Poor Performers
Ferguson‐Hessler, M. G. M., & de Jong, T. (1990) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0701_2 · Cited by 160
Goals and Learning in Microworlds
Miller, C. S., Lehman, J. F., & Koedinger, K. R. (1999) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog2303_2 · Cited by 160
Enhancement of Metacognition Use and Awareness by Means of a Collaborative Intervention
Sandí-Ureña, S., Cooper, M. M., & Stevens, R. H. (2010) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500690903452922 · Cited by 158
Eysink, T. H. S., de Jong, T., Berthold, K., Kolloffel, B., Opfermann, M., & Wouters, P. (2009) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831209340235 · Cited by 158
Explanatory Preferences Shape Learning and Inference
Lombrozo, T. (2016) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2016.08.001 · Cited by 229
Progressive inquiry in a computer‐supported biology class
Hakkarainen, K. (2003) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.10121 · Cited by 158
Glogger‐Frey, I., Schwonke, R., Holzäpfel, L., Nückles, M., & Renkl, A. (2012) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026683 · Cited by 157
Tutoring: Guided Learning by Doing
Merrill, D. C., Reiser, B. J., Merrill, S. K., & Landes, S. (1995) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1303_1 · Cited by 160
Diagnostic Reasoning and Medical Expertise
Patel, V. L., Arocha, J. F., & Kaufman, D. R. (1994) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60411-9 · Cited by 156
Schwarz, B. B. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-98125-3_4 · Cited by 170
Self-Explanation Training Improves Proof Comprehension
Hodds, M., Alcock, L., & Inglis, M. (2013) · Journal for Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.5951/jresematheduc.45.1.0062 · Cited by 155
Instructional design of a programming course
Caspersen, M. E., & Bennedsen, J. (2007) · ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research (ICER) · doi:10.1145/1288580.1288595 · Cited by 160
Stark, R., Kopp, V., & Fischer, M. R. (2011) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.10.001 · Cited by 154
Why does peer instruction benefit student learning?
Tullis, J. G., & Goldstone, R. L. (2020) · Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-020-00218-5 · Cited by 153
Generalizing solution procedures learned from examples.
Catrambone, R. (1996) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.22.4.1020 · Cited by 154
Implications of the ACT-R Learning Theory: No Magic Bullets
Anderson, J. R., & Schunn, C. D. (2018) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) · doi:10.1184/r1/6615140 · Cited by 151
The Development of Students' Helping Behavior and Learning in Peer-Directed Small Groups
Webb, N. M., & Mastergeorge, A. M. (2003) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2104_2 · Cited by 156
Belland, B., Glazewski, K., & Richardson, J. (2008) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-007-9074-1 · Cited by 160
Mwangi, W., & Sweller, J. (1998) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1602_2 · Cited by 156
Stegmann, K., Wecker, C., Weinberger, A., & Fischer, F. (2012) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-011-9174-5 · Cited by 149
Generative Learning: Which Strategies for What Age?
Brod, G. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09571-9 · Cited by 145
Relational categories as a bridge between cognitive and educational research.
Goldwater, M. B., & Schalk, L. (2016) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000043 · Cited by 171
Webb, N. M., Nemer, K. M., & Ing, M. (2006) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls1501_8 · Cited by 232
Cox, R., & Brna, P. (1995) · Cited by 149
Constructivism in the Collaboratory
Edelson, D. C., Pea, R. D., & Gomez, L. M. (1995) · Cited by 148
How do we learn in a negative mood? Effects of a negative mood on transfer and learning
Brand, S., Reimer, T. O., & Opwis, K. (2007) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.11.002 · Cited by 153
Chiu, M. M., Chow, B. W., & McBride-Chang, C. A. (2007) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.03.007 · Cited by 147
A Cognitive Approach to Instructional Design for Multimedia Learning
Sorden, S. D. (2005) · Informing Science The International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline · doi:10.28945/498 · Cited by 152
Ge, X., Chen, C., & Davis, K. A. (2005) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/5f6j-hhvf-2u2b-8t3g · Cited by 147
Designing agents to support learning by explaining
Holmes, J. (2005) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2005.02.007 · Cited by 148
Kirk-Johnson, A., Galla, B. M., & Fraundorf, S. H. (2019) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2019.101237 · Cited by 175
Glogger-Frey, I., Fleischer, C., Grüny, L., Kappich, J., & Renkl, A. (2015) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.05.001 · Cited by 151
Motivation to Learn and Understand: On Taking Charge of One's Own Learning
Brown, A. L. (1988) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0504_4 · Cited by 146
Interactivity in Video-based Models
Wouters, P., Tabbers, H. K., & Paas, F. (2007) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-007-9045-4 · Cited by 145
Explanation and Generalization in Young Children's Strategy Learning
Crowley, K., & Siegler, R. S. (1999) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00023 · Cited by 145
Williams, J. J., Kim, J., Rafferty, A. N., Maldonado, S., Gajos, K. Z., Lasecki, W. S., & Heffernan, N. T. (2016) · ACM Conference on Learning @ Scale (L@S) · doi:10.1145/2876034.2876042 · Cited by 147
Rittle‐Johnson, B., Loehr, A. M., & Durkin, K. L. (2017) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-017-0834-z · Cited by 142
Land, S. M., & Zembal‐Saul, C. (2003) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504544 · Cited by 142
Metadata
- Authors
- Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R.
- Affiliations
- RAND Corporation (US)
- TU Bergakademie Freiberg (DE)
- Venue
- Cognitive Science
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1989-04
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 145-182
- ISSN
- 0364-0213 (ISSN-L)
- 1551-6709
- OpenAlex
- W4239816899
- Cited by
- 1,714
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 54 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 65 · 2021: 80 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 99 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 77 · 2015: 69 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 59
- FWCI
- 27.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cognitive Science (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- self-explanation, worked examples, problem solving, mechanics problems, self-monitoring, understanding-based learning, explanation-based learning, student differences
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
