Experience Sampling-Based Personalized Feedback and Positive Affect: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Depressed Patients
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OBJECTIVES: Positive affect (PA) plays a crucial role in the development, course, and recovery of depression. Recently, we showed that a therapeutic application of the experience sampling method (ESM), consisting of feedback focusing on PA in daily life, was associated with a decrease in depressive symptoms. The present study investigated whether the experience of PA increased during the course of this intervention. DESIGN: Multicentre parallel randomized controlled trial. An electronic random sequence generator was used to allocate treatments. SETTINGS: University, two local mental health care institutions, one local hospital. PARTICIPANTS: 102 pharmacologically treated outpatients with a DSM-IV diagnosis of major depressive disorder, randomized over three treatment arms. INTERVENTION: Six weeks of ESM self-monitoring combined with weekly PA-focused feedback sessions (experimental group); six weeks of ESM self-monitoring combined with six weekly sessions without feedback (pseudo-experimental group); or treatment as usual (control group). MAIN OUTCOME: The interaction between treatment allocation and time in predicting positive and negative affect (NA) was investigated in multilevel regression models. RESULTS: 102 patients were randomized (mean age 48.0, SD 10.2) of which 81 finished the entire study protocol. All 102 patients were included in the analyses. The experimental group did not show a significant larger increase in momentary PA during or shortly after the intervention compared to the pseudo-experimental or control groups (χ2(2) = 0.33, p = .846). The pseudo-experimental group showed a larger decrease in NA compared to the control group (χ2(1) = 6.29, p =.012). CONCLUSION: PA-focused feedback did not significantly impact daily life PA during or shortly after the intervention. As the previously reported reduction in depressive symptoms associated with the feedback unveiled itself only after weeks, it is conceivable that the effects on daily life PA also evolve slowly and therefore were not captured by the experience sampling procedure immediately after treatment. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Trialregister.nl/trialreg/index.asp. NTR1974.
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Several studies have tested ESM-based personalized feedback in patients with depression with preliminary positive effects on feelings of empowerment and a decrease in symptoms of depression.
“Personalized feedback based on ESM data is new to the field of psychology but several studies have tested the intervention in patients with depression with preliminary positive effects on feelings of empowerment and a decrease in symptoms of depression [26–29].”
From Personalized exposure and experience sampling method feedback versus exposure as usual for obsessive–compulsive disorder: a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [26]
The Introduction (‘The present study’) describes a trial of ESM-based feedback in depressed patients and reports a decrease in depressive symptoms following the intervention; the Discussion also reports that finding from an earlier analysis of the same sample. Our copy does not report an effect on feelings of empowerment, so that part of the claim is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredUse of Psymate was associated with increased levels of perceived empowerment, regardless of the presence of weekly feedback.
“the use of Psymate was associated with increased levels of perceived empowerment, regardless of the presence of weekly feedback”
From Current state and future directions of technology-based ecological momentary assessment and intervention for major depressive disorder: a systematic review (2019) · cites this paper as [64]
Psymate was tested in a sample of 102 clinically depressed patients in a three-arm randomized controlled trial.
“Psymate was tested in a sample of 102 clinically depressed patients in a three-arm randomized controlled trial”
From Current state and future directions of technology-based ecological momentary assessment and intervention for major depressive disorder: a systematic review (2019) · cites this paper as [64]
Use of Psymate was associated with increased experienced positive affect throughout treatment.
“and with increased experienced PA throughout the treatment”
From Current state and future directions of technology-based ecological momentary assessment and intervention for major depressive disorder: a systematic review (2019) · cites this paper as [64]
Decreased depressive symptoms were associated with increased positive daily behaviours.
“Decreased depressive symptoms were also associated with increased positive daily behaviours.”
From Current state and future directions of technology-based ecological momentary assessment and intervention for major depressive disorder: a systematic review (2019) · cites this paper as [64]
Participants in the pseudo-experimental condition reported decreased depressive symptoms in the first weeks of treatment, but this gain was not maintained across the weeks.
“Participants in the pseudo-experimental condition reported decreased depressive symptoms in the first weeks of the treatment, but this gain was not maintained across the weeks.”
From Current state and future directions of technology-based ecological momentary assessment and intervention for major depressive disorder: a systematic review (2019) · cites this paper as [64]
Psymate produced a significant reduction in depressive symptoms in the experimental group that was maintained at follow-up.
“Results showed a significant reduction in depressive symptoms in the experimental group that was maintained in the follow-up assessment.”
From Current state and future directions of technology-based ecological momentary assessment and intervention for major depressive disorder: a systematic review (2019) · cites this paper as [64]
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Martin, E. C., Joode, L. E. G. H. D., Lucieer, F., Sitters, D., Delespaul, P., Leue, C., van de Weijer, S. C. F., Erdkamp, A., Grill, E., Zwergal, A., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Audiology and Otology · doi:10.3389/fauot.2024.1378569 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationHoogerwerf, E., Greeven, A., Goekoop, R., & Spinhoven, P. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24993705
A dynamic perspective on clinical treatment evaluation using dynamic structural equation modeling
He, S., & Lee, W. (2026) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-026-02921-1
van Lankveld, J. J. D. M., Aarnoudse, B., Aaronson, N. K., Oudsten, B. L. D., Beaulen, A. A. J. M., van Diest, S. L., & Verboon, P. (2026) · Sexual & Relationship Therapy · doi:10.1080/14681994.2026.2688534
A Discrete Time and Discrete State Markov Chain for Affect Dynamics
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Systematic Review of Positive Affect Therapy on a Variety of Neurotic Disorders
Dolatshahi, B., Lotfi, M., & Shakiba, S. (2026) · Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.5812/ijpbs-168433
Hacker, H., Hartmann, J., Böke, A., Wigman, J. T. W., Pratt, D. N., Mittal, V. A., Allott, K., Baker, J. T., Dwyer, D., Rahimi-Eichi, H., et al. (2026) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/100370
Self-citation
- Authors
- Hartmann, J. A., Wichers, M., Menne-Lothmann, C., Kramer, I., Viechtbauer, W., Peeters, F., Schruers, K. R. J., van Bemmel, A. L., Myin-Germeys, I., Delespaul, P., van Os, J., & Simons, C. J. P.
- Affiliations
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Maastricht University Medical Centre (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Hartmann, Jessica A.
- ORCID
- Venue
- PLOS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2015-06-02
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- e0128095
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4452775
- OpenAlex
- W587138941
- Cited by
- 62
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 10.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Lirias (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Eli Lilly and Company
- Pfizer
- AstraZeneca
- GlaxoSmithKline
- Servier
- H. Lundbeck A/S
- Cilag
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Keywords
- positive affect, ecological momentary assessment, personalized feedback, major depressive disorder, self-monitoring, negative affect, depression treatment, momentary affect
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Depression, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Self Care, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
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