Change in daily life behaviors and depression: Within-person and between-person associations
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVE: This study examined associations between daily physical, sedentary, social, and leisure behaviors and depressive symptoms (a) at a macrolevel, over the course of an Experience Sampling (ESM) self-monitoring intervention, and (b) at a microlevel, by examining daily within-person associations. Second, we examined the effects of the ESM self-monitoring intervention on these daily life behaviors. METHODS: Individuals with a diagnosis of depression (N = 102) receiving pharmacological treatment were randomized to 1 of 2 six-week ESM intervention conditions or a control condition. Physical, sedentary, social, and leisure behaviors as well as depressive symptoms were assessed prospectively in every-day life at baseline, postintervention, and during the ESM interventions. RESULTS: Change in physical activity and talking from baseline to postintervention was associated with change in depressive symptoms from baseline to postintervention. Within-person daily fluctuations in talking, physical activity, doing nothing/resting, and being alone predicted end-of-day depressive symptoms over and above depressive symptoms at the previous day. The ESM interventions contributed to change in talking, doing nothing/resting, and being alone over time in comparison with the control group. The analyses revealed individual differences in the amount of behavioral change over time and in the within-subject associations between daily behaviors and depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that physical, sedentary, and social behaviors have affective implications for daily mental health of individuals with depression. Self-monitoring using ESM may be a useful add-on tool to achieve behavioral change and to gain personalized insight in behaviors that improve daily depressive symptoms.
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“Further, changes in daily life behaviors are related to feelings of depression (Snippe et al., 2016), suggesting an increase or decrease in social behaviors may further contribute to depressive symptoms.”
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“According to column “Use the name EMA” in Table 3, 71% of studies used the EMA expression for naming the main methodology, with 13.2% of studies using “Experienced Sampling Method” (ESM), and 7,9% used “Ambulatory Assessment”.”
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“This study is one of the first to integrate momentary assessment data within integrative biobehavioral patient feedback.(35,36) A primary purpose for the study was to demonstrate feasibility of the assessment and feedback system and protocol.”
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“Raising awareness for positive affect in people with depression can lead to actual behavioral changes and thereby long-lasting effects (Snippe et al., 2016).”
BackgroundSelf-citationEcological Momentary Assessment in psychotherapy research: A systematic review
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“health (e.g., Myin‐Germeys et al., 2018; Snippe et al., 2016), and ILD can also be used to tailor interventions to the subject’s real-time dynamics of negative affect (van Roekel et al, 2017).”
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“The reversed relationship, although contrary to our hypothesis, is not surprising and has been observed in other research areas (Snippe et al., 2016; Thorvaldsson et al., 2012).”
Applications of the experience sampling method (ESM) in paediatric healthcare: a systematic review
van Dalen, M., Snijders, A. L., Dietvorst, E., Bracké, K. F. M., Nijhof, S. L., Keijsers, L., Hillegers, M. H. J., & Legerstee, J. S. (2023) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-023-02918-2 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
A Network Modeling Approach to Mindfulness Mechanisms: a Proof-of-Concept Investigation
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“The integration of ES methods data with network theory and methods may prove to be a particularly powerful means of advancing mindfulness mechanisms research (Bringmann et al. 2013; Epskamp et al. 2018; Fried and Cramer 2017; Hofmann et al. 2016; Snippe et al. 2015).”
MethodDaily Fluctuations in Office-Based Workers’ Leisure Activities and Well-Being
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“This study adds to the current knowledge of the contribution of leisure to daily well-being (e.g., Snippe et al., 2016; Sonnentag, 2001) by adding further empirical support to workers’ well-being literature, using a sample of office-based staff from the UK.”
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“…higher NA in the post-discharge period from a PHP. Additionally, social isolation and/or conflict predicts deteriorated affect (Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, Karvounis, Pemberton, HartleyClark, & Richardson, 2017; Pemberton & Fuller Tyszkiewicz, 2016; Snippe et al., 2016; Vranceanu, Gallo, & Bogart, 2009).”
BackgroundTechnology-Based Ecological Momentary Assessment in Clinical Psychology
Colombo, D., Suso‐Ribera, C., Fernández‐Álvarez, J., Cipresso, P., García‐Palacios, A., Riva, G., & Botella, C. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818697-8.00003-0 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Reininghaus, U., Schwannauer, M., Barne, I., Beames, J. R., Bonnier, R., Brenner, M., Breznoščáková, D., Dančík, D., Allegri, M. D., Folco, S. D., et al. (2024) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-024-05839-4 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“While there is evidence on the effectiveness of ESM-based monitoring, reporting, and feedback in people with mental health problems [5, 7–9], uptake remains limited due to a lack of digital tools that comply with regulatory requirements and, hence, would allow for ESM-based monitoring, reporting,…”
BackgroundA categorization of behaviors reported in experience sampling studies
Skimina, E., Karaś, D., Topolewska‐Siedzik, E., Kłym, M., Ponikiewska, K., Rogoza, R., Davidov, E., & Cieciuch, J. (2020) · Social Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.32872/spb.3029 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Interest in physical activity will likely use a categorization that differentiates sedentary behaviors from active ones (e.g., Snippe et al., 2016).”
BackgroundMcFayden, T. C., Gatto, A. J., Dahiya, A. V., Antezana, L., Miyazaki, Y., & Cooper, L. D. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04824-6 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Hoemann, K. (2023) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12659 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Tran, B. X., Dam, V. A. T., Auquier, P., Boyer, L., Fond, G. B., Nguyen, H. M., Nguyen, H. T., Le, H. T., Tran, H. N. T., Vu, G. T., et al. (2023) · JMIR Public Health and Surveillance · doi:10.2196/47239 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“This finding suggests that the distribution of social support is not linked to the needs of patients with mental health disorders [43].”
BackgroundBartels, S. L., van Knippenberg, R. J. M., Viechtbauer, W., Simons, C. J. P., Ponds, R., Myin‐Germeys, I., Verhey, F. R. J., & de Vugt, M. E. (2020) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2020.1857692 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Momentary data is ideally suited to map out this potential behavioural change (Snippe et al., 2016).”
BackgroundMethodKishimoto, T., Kinoshita, S., Kikuchi, T., Bun, S., Kitazawa, M., Horigome, T., Tazawa, Y., Takamiya, A., Hirano, J., Mimura, M., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1025517 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Since previous studies that merely provided information on the status of patients’ symptoms improved the patients’ symptoms (19), the introduction of medical devices that enable such symptom monitoring may be effective for patient treatment.”
BackgroundProchnow, T. M., Wang, W., Wang, S. D., Li, J., Rothman, A. J., Intille, S. S., Hedeker, D., & Dunton, G. F. (2025) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/67117 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Specifically, studies have found lower compliance rates among racial and ethnic minorities [12,13] and individuals with lower socioeconomic status [32].”
Valentino, K., Park, I. J. K., Cruz-Gonzalez, M. A., Zhen‐Duan, J., Wang, L., Yip, T., Lorenzo, K., Dias, D., Álvarez, K., & Alegria, M. M. (2024) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579424000749 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Overall, our findings have important practical implications, as recent research suggests that mechanisms of change identified by daily associations may be especially effective at improving individual outcomes in everyday life (Snippe et al., 2016).”
Zufriedenheit von Post-COVID-Patienten in der Rehabilitation
Kupferschmitt, A. A., Hinterberger, T., Indin, S., Hermann, C., Michael, J., Kelm, S., Sütfels, G., Löw, T. H., & Köllner, V. (2025) · Die Rehabilitation · doi:10.1055/a-2560-4149 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Anxiety and adaptation to pandemic in Mexico: A cross-sectional study
Bermúdez, J. Á., Peña, C. M., & México, G. D. I. I. P. N. (2022) · Interacciones Revista de Avances en Psicología · doi:10.24016/2022.v8.242 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“En relación a los hábitos y el estado emocional, se ha encontrado que la disminución de las actividades físicas, recreativas, sociales, cambios en los hábitos alimentarios, descanso, son elementos asociados a la aparición de problemas de salud mental (Snippe et al., 2016, UNICEF, 2020).”
BackgroundEffect of Daily Life Reward Loop Functioning on the Course of Depression
Heininga, V. E., Ornée, D. A., Oldehinkel, A. J., & Bastiaansen, J. A. (2023) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2023.01.007 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Pociūnaitė-Ott, J., Kraiss, J. T., van Eersel, J. H. W., Franzen, M., & Lenferink, L. I. M. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-23122-8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Depression and Reciprocal Language Style Matching in Text Messages
Weinstein, M., & Jensen, M. R. (2023) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x231163305 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…the experience of depression undermines interpersonal effectiveness during a depressive episode (serving as a symptom or time-limited consequence; Snippe et al., 2016), and/or a history of depression may have lasting impacts on later social processes (with interpersonal ineffectiveness serving…”
BackgroundLeertouwer, I., Vermunt, J. K., & Schuurman, N. K. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/dysv8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
A Pre-Post Design for Testing Insight from Personalized Feedback about Positive Affect in ContextsPreprint
Leertouwer, I., Vermunt, J. K., & Schuurman, N. K. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/cfkrv · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Leertouwer, I., Cramer, A. O. J., Vermunt, J. K., & Schuurman, N. K. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/r9s7k · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The use of Experience Sampling Method in psychopharmacological studies: A systematic review
Quadackers, D. M. C., Bos, F. M., Hovenkamp-Hermelink, J., Cath, D. C., & Riese, H. (2024) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2024.116327 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Le, H. H., Gelmez, P. S., Mutuyimana, C., Stelzer, E., Nguyen, H., & Killikelly, C. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03682-0 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“The findings of previous ESM studies [75, 76] on depression extend the findings of Eisma and colleagues [74], as more sedentary behaviors and less engagement with close social contacts showed elevated levels of end-of-day negative affect.”
Frailty as a Risk Factor for Depression after COVID-19 Hospital Admission
Soler-Moratalla, I., Ríos, S. S., Lozoya-Moreno, S., Hermosilla-Pasamar, A. M., Hernández‐Martínez, A., del Pozo, J. S. G., Escribano-Talaya, M., Font-Payeras, M. A., & García-Alcaráz, F. (2024) · Geriatrics · doi:10.3390/geriatrics9040097 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“The term “depression” encompasses a set of disorders characterized by an altered mood with sadness that significantly interferes with daily life due to both its intensity and duration [10].”
BackgroundA Scorecard Method for Detecting Depression in Social Media Users
Tefera, N. L., & Zhou, L. (2018) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.24251/hicss.2018.071 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Individual behavior sedentary behavior [14], awkward social skills[14]and somatic symptoms[10]”
Methods for Studying Everyday Experience in Its Natural Context
Reis, H. T., Sels, L., & Gable, S. L. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009170123.013 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Evaluating visual feedback of experience sampling data for mental health practitioners
Piot, M., Dejonckheere, E., Tuinstra, A., Tijs, I., Kuppens, P., & Verdonck, S. (2025) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2025.100873 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“For patients, receiving feedback can be motivational to continue monitoring (Hsieh et al., 2008), help them to deal with their symptoms (Folkersma et al., 2021), and introduce behavioral change (Snippe et al., 2016).”
Daily Behavioral and Environmental Factors Association with Affective States and Quality of Life
Bouneb, M., Matias, I., & Wac, K. (2026) · Lecture notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-27582-0_12 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Experience sampling in dementia care
van Knippenberg (2017) · doi:10.26481/dis.20170317rvk · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Reininghaus, U., Schwannauer, M., Barne, I., Beames, J. R., Bonnier, R., Brenner, M., Dančík, D., Allegri, M. D., Folco, S. D., Durstewitz, D., et al. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4293471/v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Klippel (2018) · doi:10.26481/dis.20180321ak
Jonasson, C. (2019) · Journal for Person-Oriented Research · doi:10.17505/jpor.2019.02
LeBlanc, N. J. (2019) · Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University)
Monitoring everyday life in aging & dementia
Bartels, S. L. (2020) · doi:10.26481/dis.20200917sb
Puente del AVE en Osera del Ebro: rigor y belleza
Búrdalo, S. (2004) · Revista del Ministerio de Fomento
Time to Get Social: Adaptive Social Processes in the Daily Lives of Youth (Full PhD thesis)Preprint
Achterhof, R. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/knzms
Гафаров, В. В., Panov, D. O., Gromova, E. A., Gafarova, A. V., & Gagulin, I. V. (2021) · Journal of Cardiology Research Review & Reports · doi:10.47363/jcrrr/2021(2)156
Myin‐Germeys, I., de Thurah, L., Weermeijer, J. D. M., Bonnier, R., van Aubel, E., & Kiekens, G. (2022) · Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde · doi:10.47671/tvg.77.21.188
Kadhila, J. G., & Dilu, P. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2297041/v1
Reininghaus, U., Schwannauer, M., Barne, I., Beames, J. R., Bonnier, R., Brenner, M., Breznoščáková, D., Dančík, D., Allegri, M. D., Folco, S. D., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26738358
Reininghaus, U., Schwannauer, M., Barne, I., Beames, J. R., Bonnier, R., Brenner, M., Breznoščáková, D., Dančík, D., Allegri, M. D., Folco, S. D., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26738361
Zarate, D., Stavropoulos, V., Ball, M., de Sena Collier, G., & Jacobson, N. C. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.20131117
Zarate, D., Stavropoulos, V., Ball, M., de Sena Collier, G., & Jacobson, N. C. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.20131114
Reininghaus, U., Schwannauer, M., Barne, I., Beames, J. R., Bonnier, R., Brenner, M., Breznoščáková, D., Dančík, D., Allegri, M. D., Folco, S. D., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26094370
Reininghaus, U., Schwannauer, M., Barne, I., Beames, J. R., Bonnier, R., Brenner, M., Breznoščáková, D., Dančík, D., Allegri, M. D., Folco, S. D., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26738355
Bos, F. M., Snippe, E., Bruggeman, R., Doornbos, B., Wichers, M., & van der Krieke, L. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13311259
Reininghaus, U., Schwannauer, M., Barne, I., Beames, J. R., Bonnier, R., Brenner, M., Breznoščáková, D., Dančík, D., Allegri, M. D., Folco, S. D., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26738364
Reininghaus, U., Schwannauer, M., Barne, I., Beames, J. R., Bonnier, R., Brenner, M., Breznoščáková, D., Dančík, D., Allegri, M. D., Folco, S. D., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26738352
Reininghaus, U., Schwannauer, M., Barne, I., Beames, J. R., Bonnier, R., Brenner, M., Breznoščáková, D., Dančík, D., Allegri, M. D., Folco, S. D., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26738346
Reininghaus, U., Schwannauer, M., Barne, I., Beames, J. R., Bonnier, R., Brenner, M., Breznoščáková, D., Dančík, D., Allegri, M. D., Folco, S. D., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26094497
Reininghaus, U., Schwannauer, M., Barne, I., Beames, J. R., Bonnier, R., Brenner, M., Breznoščáková, D., Dančík, D., Allegri, M. D., Folco, S. D., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26738340
Reininghaus, U., Schwannauer, M., Barne, I., Beames, J. R., Bonnier, R., Brenner, M., Breznoščáková, D., Dančík, D., Allegri, M. D., Folco, S. D., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26738349
Reininghaus, U., Schwannauer, M., Barne, I., Beames, J. R., Bonnier, R., Brenner, M., Breznoščáková, D., Dančík, D., Allegri, M. D., Folco, S. D., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26738343
Lall, V., Ree, M. J., & Bucks, R. S. (2026) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2026.105146
- Authors
- Snippe, E., Simons, C. J. P., Hartmann, J. A., Menne-Lothmann, C., Kramer, I., Booij, S. H., Viechtbauer, W., Delespaul, P., Myin-Germeys, I., & Wichers, M.
- Affiliations
- University Medical Center Groningen (NL)
- Maastricht University (NL)
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Snippe, Evelien
- ORCID
- Venue
- Health Psychology
- Published
- 2016
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 433-441
- ISSN
- 0278-6133 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-7810
- OpenAlex
- W2339529702
- Cited by
- 94
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 5.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Health Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Lirias (submittedVersion)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Dutch Health Research Council (171001002 and 91501003)
- Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (91812607)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Physical Activity and Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- depression, depressive symptoms, physical activity, sedentary behavior, social behavior, leisure behavior, within-person associations, between-person associations, ecological momentary assessment, self-monitoring intervention, behavior change, daily fluctuations, pharmacotherapy, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Depression, Depressive Disorder, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Middle Aged, Motor Activity, Problem Solving, Prospective Studies, Self-Assessment, Social Behavior, Sedentary Behavior, Self Report
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