Cited by 1,217Down syndrome and intellectual disability researchAutism Spectrum Disorder ResearchHealth and Medical Studies

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Prevalence and Trends of Developmental Disabilities among Children in the United States: 2009–2017

Zablotsky, Benjamin, Black, Lindsey I., Maenner, Matthew J., Schieve, Laura A., Danielson, Melissa L., Bitsko, Rebecca H., Blumberg, Stephen J., Kogan, Michael D., Boyle, Coleen A.·2019·Pediatrics

DOI 10.1542/peds.2019-0811PMC PMC7076808

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Abstract

OBJECTIVES: To study the national prevalence of 10 developmental disabilities in US children aged 3 to 17 years and explore changes over time by associated demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, using the National Health Interview Survey. METHODS: Data come from the 2009 to 2017 National Health Interview Survey, a nationally representative survey of the civilian noninstitutionalized population. Parents reported physician or other health care professional diagnoses of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; autism spectrum disorder; blindness; cerebral palsy; moderate to profound hearing loss; learning disability; intellectual disability; seizures; stuttering or stammering; and other developmental delays. Weighted percentages for each of the selected developmental disabilities and any developmental disability were calculated and stratified by demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. RESULTS: From 2009 to 2011 and 2015 to 2017, there were overall significant increases in the prevalence of any developmental disability (16.2%–17.8%, P < .001), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (8.5%–9.5%, P < .01), autism spectrum disorder (1.1%–2.5%, P < .001), and intellectual disability (0.9%–1.2%, P < .05), but a significant decrease for any other developmental delay (4.7%–4.1%, P < .05). The prevalence of any developmental disability increased among boys, older children, non-Hispanic white and Hispanic children, children with private insurance only, children with birth weight ≥2500 g, and children living in urban areas and with less-educated mothers. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of developmental disability among US children aged 3 to 17 years increased between 2009 and 2017. Changes by demographic and socioeconomic subgroups may be related to improvements in awareness and access to health care.

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Background
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Rogers, C. J., Gausche‐Hill, M., Brown, L., & Burke, R. V. (2021) · Evaluation & the Health Professions · doi:10.1177/01632787211003972 · Cited by 8
“Trends also suggest that there is an increase in the prevalence of pediatric disability, predominantly neurodevelopmental or mental health conditions (Houtrow et al., 2014; Van Naarden Braun et al., 2015; Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
Background
ECHO Autism: Evaluation of Participants’ Perceptions of Collaborative Telementoring Network
Becevic, M., Nair, P., Wallach, E., Hoffman, K. G., & Sohl, K. (2021) · Journal of Patient Experience · doi:10.1177/23743735211065292 · Cited by 9
Adaptive Care for Perioperative Patients With Developmental Disabilities: An Exploration of Interventions and Family Experience
Winterberg, A. V., Jones, E., Ding, L., Hill, L. M., & Varughese, A. M. (2022) · Journal of Pediatric Health Care · doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2022.05.019 · Cited by 8
Predictors of Developmental Outcome in 4- to 6-Year-Olds With Developmental Disability
Lee, T., Park, K. J., Shon, S., Kim, S., & Kim, H. (2022) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2021.0385 · Cited by 8
Developmentally-Trained Primary Care Clinicians: A Pipeline to Improved Access?
Doss, M., Christiansen, A., O’Hagan, B., Jansen, E. M., & Augustyn, M. C. (2023) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000001178 · Cited by 8
“In addition, racial and ethnic disparities in the diagnosis of ASD remain after researchers statistically accounted for socioeconomic status.(7,9,10) Recent studies have also shown overall improvements in disparities among early diagnosis of Black children with ASD when compared with White children with ASD from 2002…”
BackgroundResult
Interprofessional Approach to Educate Health Care Students About Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: Adaptive Communication and Physical Activity Planning
Haugland, M., Hartmann, K. D., Feinn, R., Gowdy, L., & Marquis-Eydman, T. (2023) · MedEdPORTAL · doi:10.15766/mep_2374-8265.11317 · Cited by 8
“Athletic training 5 (5) 4 (5) Health science studies 4 (4) 4 (5) Medicine (MD) 9 (8) 9 (12) Nursing 11 (10) 8 (10) Occupational therapy 27 (25) 18 (23) Pathologists’ assistant 1 (1) 1 (1) Pharmacy 2 (2) 1 (1) Physical therapy 26 (24) 16 (20) Physician assistant 19 (17) 14 (18) Social work 1 (1) 0 (0) Therapeutic recre…”
Variations in Criteria for Eligibility Determination for Early Intervention Services with a Focus on Eligibility for Children with Neonatal Complications
Dempsey, A. G., Goode, R. H., Colon, M. T., Holubeck, P. A., Nsier, H., Zopatti, K. L., & Needelman, H. W. (2020) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000000852 · Cited by 8
“Medical complications in the perinatal and neonatal periods, particularly prematurity/low birth weight, remain one of the most common causes of developmental delays in the United States and put children at risk not only for developmental delay but also for learning impairments, attention disorders, developmental disor…”
Background
Disability in Childhood, Special Education Histories, and Lifetime Health Outcomes in the United States
Laditka, S. B., Laditka, J. N., & Hoyle, J. (2021) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/08982643211018918 · Cited by 8
“Additionally, researchers recently estimated that one in every six children in the United States has a developmental disability (Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
Background
Ecological contexts of youth antisocial behaviors: A longitudinal perspective
Zhang, S., Lefmann, T., Lee, N. Y., & Fisher, A. K. (2021) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21954 · Cited by 8
Hyperactive/impulsive symptoms and autistic trait in institutionalized children with maltreatment experience
Imai, J., Sasayama, D., Kuge, R., Honda, H., & Washizuka, S. (2021) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cad.20445 · Cited by 7
Description of Audiologic, Developmental, Ophthalmologic, and Neurologic Diagnoses at a Primary Care Clinic for Children in Foster Care
Reynoso, M., McLeigh, J. D., Malthaner, L., & Stone, K. E. (2022) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000001126 · Cited by 7
Prenatal Exposure to Opioids and Neurodevelopmental Disorders in Children: A Bayesian Mediation Analysis
Wang, S., Puggioni, G., Wu, J., Meador, K. J., Caffrey, A. R., Wyss, R., Slaughter, J. L., Suzuki, E., Ward, K. E., Lewkowitz, A. K., et al. (2023) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwad183 · Cited by 7
Pre-pregnancy ozone and ultrafine particulate matter exposure during second year of life associated with decreased cognitive and adaptive functioning at aged 2–5 years
Goodrich, A. J., Kleeman, M. J., Tancredi, D. J., Ludeña, Y., Bennett, D. H., Hertz‐Picciotto, I., & Schmidt, R. J. (2024) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2024.118854 · Cited by 7
Challenges and best practices for recruiting families of children with intellectual disabilities for health research
MacNeil, M., Benoit, B., Disher, T. C., Newman, A. J., & Campbell-Yeo, M. L. (2024) · Journal of Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1177/17446295241255178 · Cited by 7
“Children with intellectual disabilities are more likely to have complex health conditions, co-morbidities, and increased needs for health services than neurotypical children (Cogswell et al., 2022; Lindly et al., 2020; Raskoff et al., 2023; Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
Motivation in caregiving among mothers of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities in Iran: A qualitative study
Hosseini, S. J., Ramezani, M., Ashrafzadeh, F., & Jamali, J. (2024) · BMC Pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s12887-024-04957-y · Cited by 13
Universal design for learning: an integrative literature review and integrated model for organizational training and development
Selseleh, M., Fragomeni, P., & Gulseren, D. B. (2024) · Human Resource Development International · doi:10.1080/13678868.2024.2397603 · Cited by 12
“…studied in the field of HRD, other disciplines such as education (e.g. Atanga et al., 2020), developmental psychology (Grigorenko et al., 2020), or paediatrics (Zablotsky et al., 2019) have been focusing on how learning disabilities can affect different domains of life for people with disabilities.”
Education strategies are the most commonly used in pediatric rehabilitation implementation research: a scoping review
Ghahramani, S., Larson, S. C., L’Hotta, A. J., Harris, K. M., Lipsey, K. L., Geng, E. H., Juckett, L., & Hoyt, C. R. (2025) · Implementation Science Communications · doi:10.1186/s43058-024-00690-w · Cited by 7
The relationship between parental stress and treatment adherence in parents of children with neurodevelopmental disorders: A cross-sectional study
Liao, X., Li, L., Tian, J., & Chen, Z. (2025) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2025.104941 · Cited by 7
Long-Term Outcomes following Craniosynostosis Corrections: A 30-Year Retrospective
Coombs, D. M., Ditthakasem, K., Herbert, M. A., & Fearon, J. A. (2025) · Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery · doi:10.1097/prs.0000000000012649 · Cited by 7
Physical activity and exercise benefits/barriers in mothers of children with motor disabilities
Özkan, R. S., & Akbaş, A. N. (2021) · Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -) · doi:10.1007/s11845-021-02800-2 · Cited by 7
“Unfortunately, the number of children with a developmental disability is increasing day by day [2, 3].”
Background
National screening for developmental delays and their determinants among Egyptian school age children: A step towards implementing life skills programs
Metwally, A. M., Nassar, M. S., El-Din, E. M. S., Abdallah, A. M., Khadr, Z., Abouelnaga, M. W., Ashaat, E. A., El‐Saied, M. M., Elwan, A. M., Bassiouni, R., et al. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0287315 · Cited by 7
Neuropsychological assessment in rare pediatric neurogenetic disorders: considerations for cross-cultural clinical research
Edgar, V. B., Dorsman, K. A., Horton, D. K., Messahel, S., & MacDonald, B. (2023) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2023.2283939 · Cited by 7
“Between 2009 and 2017, developmental disabilities were reportedly diagnosed in as many as 1 in 6 children between the ages of 3–17 in the United States (Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
Unmasking misunderstandings
Kilgore, B., Harriger, C., Gaeta, L., & Sharpp, T. J. (2020) · Nursing · doi:10.1097/01.nurse.0000724368.90257.74 · Cited by 7
Socio‐economic status in families affected by childhood cataract
Al‐Bakri, M., Bach‐Holm, D., Larsen, D. A., Siersma, V., & Kessel, L. (2021) · Acta Ophthalmologica · doi:10.1111/aos.14768 · Cited by 7
A retrospective observational cohort study: Epidemiology and outcomes of pediatric unintentional falls in US emergency departments
Nguyen, Q.-U. P., Saynina, O., Pirrotta, E., Huffman, L. C., & Wang, N. E. (2021) · Injury · doi:10.1016/j.injury.2021.05.017 · Cited by 7
Prenatal Vitamin D Levels in Maternal Sera and Offspring Specific Learning Disorders
Arrhenius, B., Upadhyaya, S., Hinkka‐Yli‐Salomäki, S., Brown, A. S., Cheslack‐Postava, K., Öhman, H., & Sourander, A. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13103321 · Cited by 7
“Specific learning disorders refer to reading, writing, and arithmetic disorders, and they are common among children with prevalence estimates of 6–10% [11,12].”
Background
Midlife Work Limitations are Associated with Lower Odds of Survival and Healthy Aging
Jajtner, K., Brucker, D. L., & Mitra, S. (2021) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbab214 · Cited by 7
Post-synaptic scaffold protein TANC2 in psychiatric and somatic disease risk
Garrett, L., da Silva‐Buttkus, P., Rathkolb, B., Gerlini, R., Becker, L., Sanz‐Moreno, A., Seisenberger, C., Zimprich, A., Aguilar‐Pimentel, J. A., Amarie, O. V., et al. (2021) · Disease Models & Mechanisms · doi:10.1242/dmm.049205 · Cited by 9
Autism, heparan sulfate and potential interventions
Alexander, J. S., Keles, G., Killingsworth, J., Bronson, R., Pérez, C., Sawmiller, D. R., & Shytle, R. D. (2022) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2022.114050 · Cited by 7
Associations Between Diaper Need and Child Sleep in Under-resourced Families
Shaffer, E., Porter, S., Condon, E. M., Zha, P., & Caldwell, B. A. (2022) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000001088 · Cited by 7
“The developmental conditions question was based on a modification of the National Health Interview Survey.21 The original question asked respondents whether their child had received a diagnosis of any of the following developmental disabilities: diagnoses of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum di…”
Method
Advanced paternal age diversifies individual trajectories of vocalization patterns in neonatal mice
Mai, L., Inada, H., Kimura, R., Kanno, K., Matsuda, T., Tachibana, R. O., Tucci, V., Komaki, F., Hiroi, N., & Osumi, N. (2022) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2022.104834 · Cited by 7
Gendered racial disparities in health of parents with children with developmental disabilities
Lee, J., Gao, M., & Lee, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.926655 · Cited by 7
Pilot Trial of a Peer-to-Peer Psychoeducational Intervention for Parents of Black Children Awaiting a Developmental Evaluation
Dababnah, S., Reyes, C., Kim, I., Badawi, D. G., Chung, Y., & Shaia, W. E. (2023) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000001182 · Cited by 7
“One in 6 US children is diagnosed with a developmental disability (DD), with a prevalence increase over the past decade.(1) Autism spectrum disorder (hereafter, autism) is among the DD diagnoses that has seen a steady rise, with the overall prevalence estimated to be 1 in 44 children.”
Background
Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities and Rare Diseases
Somanadhan, S., Johnson, N. L., Gilroy, B. S., Lawlor, A., & Vockley, J. E. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-27496-1_7 · Cited by 7
The relationship between adherence to the Mediterranean dietary pattern during early pregnancy and behavioral, mood and cognitive development in children under 1 year of age: a prospective cohort study
Ganjeh, B. J., Mirrafiei, A., Jayedi, A., Mirmohammadkhani, M., Emadi, A., Ehsani, F., & Shab‐Bidar, S. (2023) · Nutritional Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/1028415x.2023.2249635 · Cited by 7
“…may be caused by genetic disorders or mutations [7] or may be associated with di ﬀ erent life-style factors such as feeding type during infancy, parental health and behaviors such as smoking and drinking, environmental factors and toxins such as lead, and health care quality during pregnancy [8,9].”
Background
Neurodevelopmental disorders as a risk factor for temporomandibular disorder: evidence from Mendelian randomization studies
Wu, X., Li, Z., Cui, Y., Yan, Z., Lu, T., & Cui, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2024.1365596 · Cited by 8
“As of 2016, there is approximately one case of NDDs for every six children in the United States (Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
Background
Using Longitudinal Twitter Data for Digital Epidemiology of Childhood Health Outcomes: An Annotated Data Set and Deep Neural Network Classifiers
Klein, A. Z., Gómez, J. A. G., Levine, L. D., & Gonzalez‐Hernandez, G. (2024) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/50652 · Cited by 7
“For example, in the United States, 17% of children are diagnosed with a developmental disability [1] and 8% of them with asthma [2].”
Severe Retinopathy of Prematurity Associated With Neurodevelopmental Disorder in Children
Choi, Y., Hong, E. H., Shin, Y. U., Bae, G. H., Kim, I., & Cho, H. (2022) · Frontiers in Pediatrics · doi:10.3389/fped.2022.816409 · Cited by 7
“Thus, neurodevelopmental disorders should be assessed through continuous, long-term follow-up (7, 9), and are difficult to study using hospital-based data.”
Background
COVID-19 Vaccines for Children with Developmental Disabilities: Survey of New York State Parents' Willingness and Concerns
Bonuck, K. A., Iadarola, S., Gao, Q., & Siegel, J. F. (2022) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000001113 · Cited by 8
“Approximately 1 in 6 children in the United States has a developmental disability.(5) Children with DD are From the Departments of *Family and Social Medicine, Division of Research and †Pediatrics, Division of Developmental Medicine, Einstein College of Medicine, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY; ‡Department of Pe…”
Background
Editorial: Advancements and challenges in autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders
Calderoni, S., & Coghill, D. (2024) · Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/frcha.2024.1372911 · Cited by 7
Examining the Association Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and ADHD in School-Aged Children Following the COVID-19 Pandemic
Boswell, E., Crouch, E., Odahowski, C., & Hung, P. (2025) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547241290673 · Cited by 6
Establishing Best Practices in Telehealth Care for Adults with Developmental Disabilities in the United States: An e-Delphi Study
Desroches, M. L., Stych, J., Bannett, G., Guttentag, R., Ailey, S. H., & Fisher, K. M. (2024) · Telemedicine Journal and e-Health · doi:10.1089/tmj.2023.0547 · Cited by 6
Parent-Mediated Occupational Therapy Interventions for Children with Developmental Disabilities: A Scoping Review
Zuair, H. M. B., Baird, J. M., & Caldwell, A. R. (2024) · Physical & Occupational Therapy In Pediatrics · doi:10.1080/01942638.2024.2378063 · Cited by 6
“…conditions may include sensory impairments, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, learning disability, or intellectual disability (Global Research on Developmental Disabilities Collaborators, 2018; Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
CC2D1A causes ciliopathy, intellectual disability, heterotaxy, renal dysplasia, and abnormal CSF flow
Kim, A., Sakin, I., Viviano, S., Tuncel, G., Aguilera, S. M., Goles, G., Jeffries, L., Ji, W., Lakhani, S. A., Köse, C. C., et al. (2024) · Life Science Alliance · doi:10.26508/lsa.202402708 · Cited by 6
“Approximately 2% of the world ’ s population is affected by IDDs, which remains the most common reason for referral to genetic analysis (2, 3, 4).”
Stem cell-based approaches for developmental neurotoxicity testing
Ku, J., & Asuri, P. (2024) · Frontiers in Toxicology · doi:10.3389/ftox.2024.1402630 · Cited by 6

Authors: Zablotsky, B., Black, L. I., Maenner, M. J., Schieve, L. A., Danielson, M. L., Bitsko, R. H., Blumberg, S. J., Kogan, M. D., & Boyle, C. A.
Affiliations: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
Health Resources and Services Administration (US)
Corresponding author: Zablotsky, Benjamin
ORCID: Zablotsky, Benjamin
Black, Lindsey I.
Maenner, Matthew J.
Schieve, Laura A.
Danielson, Melissa L.
Bitsko, Rebecca H.
Blumberg, Stephen J.
Kogan, Michael D.
Venue: Pediatrics
Publisher: American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)
Published: 2019-10-01
Volume: 144
Issue: 4
ISSN: 0031-4005 (ISSN-L)
1098-4275
DOI: 10.1542/peds.2019-0811
PMC: PMC7076808
OpenAlex: W2976851556
Cited by: 1,217
References: 54
Citations by year: 2026: 116 · 2025: 189 · 2024: 210 · 2023: 218 · 2022: 218 · 2021: 184 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 4
FWCI: 111.65
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: PEDIATRICS (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (CC999999)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Down syndrome and intellectual disability research
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Health and Medical Studies
Keywords: developmental disabilities, prevalence trends, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, developmental delay, learning disabilities, cerebral palsy, hearing loss, blindness, seizures, stuttering, socioeconomic disparities, demographic disparities, children, United States
MeSH terms: Autism Spectrum Disorder, Adolescent, Age Factors, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Blindness, Cerebral Palsy, Child, Developmental Disabilities, Child, Preschool, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Male, Intellectual Disability, Population Dynamics, Seizures, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Stuttering, United States, Prevalence, Insurance Coverage, Hearing Loss

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Prevalence and Trends of Developmental Disabilities among Children in the United States: 2009–2017

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