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Prevalence and Trends of Developmental Disabilities among Children in the United States: 2009–2017
Abstract
OBJECTIVES: To study the national prevalence of 10 developmental disabilities in US children aged 3 to 17 years and explore changes over time by associated demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, using the National Health Interview Survey. METHODS: Data come from the 2009 to 2017 National Health Interview Survey, a nationally representative survey of the civilian noninstitutionalized population. Parents reported physician or other health care professional diagnoses of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; autism spectrum disorder; blindness; cerebral palsy; moderate to profound hearing loss; learning disability; intellectual disability; seizures; stuttering or stammering; and other developmental delays. Weighted percentages for each of the selected developmental disabilities and any developmental disability were calculated and stratified by demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. RESULTS: From 2009 to 2011 and 2015 to 2017, there were overall significant increases in the prevalence of any developmental disability (16.2%–17.8%, P < .001), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (8.5%–9.5%, P < .01), autism spectrum disorder (1.1%–2.5%, P < .001), and intellectual disability (0.9%–1.2%, P < .05), but a significant decrease for any other developmental delay (4.7%–4.1%, P < .05). The prevalence of any developmental disability increased among boys, older children, non-Hispanic white and Hispanic children, children with private insurance only, children with birth weight ≥2500 g, and children living in urban areas and with less-educated mothers. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of developmental disability among US children aged 3 to 17 years increased between 2009 and 2017. Changes by demographic and socioeconomic subgroups may be related to improvements in awareness and access to health care.
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“Developmental delays and disabilities are common in children, affecting up to 18% of children aged 3 to 17 years in the United States, according to recent national estimates.1”
From Early Childhood Care Coordination Through 211: A Randomized Clinical Trial (2024) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“In a large US parent report survey in 88,530 children aged 3–17 years, the rate of any neurodevelopmental condition, including ADHD, autism, speech fluency disorder (stuttering), learning disorders, intellectual disabilities or any other developmental delay was 12.6% in females and 22.7% in males12.”
From Sex and gender in neurodevelopmental conditions (2023) · cites this paper as [12]
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“Globally, it is estimated that the prevalence of NDDs in people under 18 years of age ranges from 15% to 20%, a fluctuation caused by the multitude of estimation procedures used in different countries and that is thought to be below their real value [3,4].”
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“Previous nationwide surveys in the United States discovered that the prevalence of DD has risen from 12.84 to 17.76% in the last 20 years (Boyle et al., 2011; Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
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“Children with developmental disabilities comprise 17.3% of the school aged population in the United States (National Center for Education Statistics, 2023; Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
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“As the rate of children diagnosed with intellectual disability continues to increase (Zablotsky et al., 2019), so too does the pressing need for test developers to create validated testing norms for these children.”
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“Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) represents one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders, only surpassed by attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and intellectual disability (ID) (Maenner et al., 2020; Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
BackgroundEpigenetic gestational age and the relationship with developmental milestones in early childhood
Polinski, K. J., Robinson, S. L., Putnick, D. L., Guan, W., Gleason, J. L., Mumford, S. L., Sundaram, R., Mendola, P., London, S. J., & Yeung, E. H. (2023) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddac302 · Cited by 19
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“…is a common neuropsychiatric dis- order that affects 2%–7% of individuals all over the world (Sayal et al. 2018); the frequency of this disorder is higher in the United States and Taiwan, being 8.5%–9.5% (Zablotsky et al. 2019) and 7%–8% (Gau et al. 2005; Chen et al. 2019), respectively.”
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“In particular, while the prevalence of ADHD in children in the United States is just over 9% (Danielson et al, 2018; Zablotsky et al, 2019), the rate in our PANS/PANDAS sample was 38%.”
Deng, W., O’Brien, M. K., Andersen, R. A., Rai, R., Jones, E. F., & Jayaraman, A. (2025) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-025-01450-3 · Cited by 26
Rare genetic variants confer a high risk of ADHD and implicate neuronal biology
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“Epidemiological studies have also consistently linked ADHD to decreased SES 34,35 .”
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“[4], and are often accompanied by physical impairments such as spasticity, muscle contracture, bone deformity, muscle weakness, and coordination disorders.”
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BackgroundMetwally, A. M., Abdallah, A. M., El-Din, E. M. S., Khadr, Z., Raouf, E. R. A., Elghareeb, N. A., Saleh, R. M., Abuelela, M. H., Amer, H., Hasanin, H. M., et al. (2022) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-022-00498-3 · Cited by 17
“The detected overall prevalence of DDs is within the estimated range of prevalence of DDs for the pediatric population, which varied between 5 and 15% [5, 30, 31].”
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Cohen, S. S., Toly, V. B., Lerret, S. M., & Sawin, K. J. (2022) · Journal of Pediatric Health Care · doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2022.09.009 · Cited by 17
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“Between 2009–2011 and 2015–2017, there were also significant increases in the prevalence of all three NDDs in American children (Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
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“Data from the National Health Interview Survey reported increasing prevalence of DD among US children aged 3–17 years between 2009–2017 [79], following similar worldwide trends as reported using functional or statistical models in LMIC [80].”
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“4,14 Notably, rates of patient violence toward staff have increased significantly in recent years.”
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“This is a concerning knowledge gap for the United States (US) because disabilities are very common among the general population and the incarcerated US population (Bronson et al., 2015; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2023; Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
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“ASD rates also vary between racial and ethnic groups in the United States [Braun et al., 2015; Durkin et al., 2017; Durkin et al., 2010; Maenner, Arneson, & Durkin, 2009; Mandell et al., 2009; Wiggins et al., 2019; Zablotsky et al., 2019].”
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“There were no significant differences in sex distributions, although PTEN no-ASD tended to have lower proportions of males than the other ASD groups, consistent with the known sex ratio in ASD [47].”
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“…qualitative The Center for Disease Control (CDC) estimates that from 2009 to 2017, one in six children aged 3–17 in the United States (US) were diagnosed with a developmental disability including autism spectrum disorder, Down syndrome, or intellectual disability (Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
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Prevalence and treatment of autism spectrum disorder in the United States, 2016–2022
Li, C., & He, W. (2024) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3228 · Cited by 16
“Previous study has reported the national prevalence of ASD has more than doubled from 1.1% in 2009 – 2011 to 2.5% in 2015 – 2017 among children aged 3 – 17 years in US (Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
InfluentialPredicting attitudes related to stuttering from an international database
Louis, K. O. S. (2024) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2024.106457 · Cited by 17
Parent concerns: Differentiating developmental diagnoses in young children
Wallisch, A. M., Little, L. M., Dean, E. E., & Dunn, W. (2020) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103684 · Cited by 21
Measuring robustness of brain networks in autism spectrum disorder with Ricci curvature
Simhal, A. K., Carpenter, K. L. H., Nadeem, S., Kurtzberg, J., Song, A. W., Tannenbaum, A., Sapiro, G., & Dawson, G. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-67474-9 · Cited by 17
Uddin, J., Ahmmad, Z., Uddin, H., & Tatch, A. (2021) · Sociological Spectrum · doi:10.1080/02732173.2021.1875089 · Cited by 16
“Early adversity, developmental disorders, and child flourishing In recent decades, childhood psychosocial adversity, as both a research topic and public policy issue, has received renewed attention in studies of health disparities and public health policy forums in the United States (Anda et al. 2010).”
BackgroundThe Hidden Disease: Delayed Diagnosis in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy and Co-Occurring Conditions
Lee, I., Turnage, C., Sutyla, R. F., Mitchell, P., Lindahl, H., Jesus, A., & Scharf, R. J. (2022) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000001105 · Cited by 16
“The prevalence of co-occurring autism spectrum disorder (ASD), intellectual disability, attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and speech/language delay in this study population (Table 1) were also higher than typically found in the general population.(16) Unfortunately, these initial delays were attributed…”
BackgroundLiu, Q., Mo, L., Huang, X., Lu, Y., & Liu, Y. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0236648 · Cited by 21
“The previous studies confirmed that peer conflict and social withdrawal in children with neuroblastoma were related to gender [31], and attentional problem in children with neurofibromatosis was associated with male gender [32], and the prevalence of any developmental disability increased among boys [33].”
Sheppard‐Jones, K., Avellone, L., Rumrill, P. D., & Seward, H. E. (2020) · Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation · doi:10.3233/jvr-201112 · Cited by 16
BETZ, C. L. (2023) · Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing · doi:10.1111/jspn.12415 · Cited by 15
Maciver, D., Tyagi, V., Kramer, J. M., Richmond, J. E., Todorova, L., Ayuso, D. M. R., Nakamura‐Thomas, H., van Hartingsveldt, M. J., Johnston, L., O'Hare, A. E., et al. (2020) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103766 · Cited by 15
Brominated flame retardants, a cornelian dilemma
Morel, C., Schroeder, H., Emond, C., Turner, J. D., Lichtfouse, É., & Grova, N. (2022) · Environmental Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1007/s10311-022-01392-2 · Cited by 16
“Neurodevelopmental diseases such as the autism spectrum disorder have dramatically increased recently, of 38.3% from 1997 to 2017 (Zablotsky et al. 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialCulbreth, M. E., Nyffeler, J., Willis, C. M., & Harrill, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Toxicology · doi:10.3389/ftox.2021.803987 · Cited by 15
Capelo, R., Rohlman, D. S., Jara, R., García, T., Viñas, J., Marín, J. A. L., Contreras, M., & Alguacil, J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19084732 · Cited by 15
“Neurodevelopmental disorders, including dyslexia, mental retardation, attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder, cerebral palsy, autism, and subclinical decrements in brain function, increased significantly in the last ten years and affects around 17% (∼1 out of every 6) of all babies born worldwide with one or more dev…”
BackgroundKildal, E. S.-M., Quintana, D. S., Szabó, A., Tronstad, C., Andreassen, O. A., Nærland, T., & Hassel, B. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04757-1 · Cited by 15
“Approximately 30% of people with an ASD diagnosis also have intellectual disability (ID) [3], a neurological condition that affects 1% of the population [4, 5].”
BackgroundTamayo, J. M., Osman, H. C., Schwartzer, J. J., Pinkerton, K. E., & Ashwood, P. (2023) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-023-02930-7 · Cited by 15
“NDD, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), are increasing in prevalence, with 1 in 6 children in the US experiencing a NDD in 2016 [125].”
BackgroundRisk factors and clinical profile of autism spectrum disorder in southern Brazil
Lin, J. H. X., da Costa, M. D. A., de Rezende, V. L., Nascimento, R. R., Ambrósio, P. G., Madeira, K., Pearson, D. A., & Gonçalves, C. L. (2023) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.11.033 · Cited by 15
Bhatnagar, S., Mitelpunkt, A., Rizzo, J. J., Zhang, N., Guzman, T., Schuetter, R., Vargus‐Adams, J. N., Bailes, A. F., Greve, K. R., Gerstle, M., et al. (2024) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.22202 · Cited by 15
Population Numbers and Reproductive Health
Suvorov, A. (2021) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/endocr/bqab154 · Cited by 15
Guo, Z., Kim, K., Bhat, A. N., & Barmaki, R. (2021) · INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MULTIMODAL INTERACTION · doi:10.1145/3462244.3479882 · Cited by 15
“Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), a developmental disorder with qualitative impairments in social behaviors and communication, have difficulty in identifying, performing, and maintaining such gaze behaviors [57].”
BackgroundMaternal Metabolic Disease and Offspring Neurodevelopment—An Evolving Public Health Crisis
Edlow, A. G. (2021) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.29674 · Cited by 14
Mirza, M. P., Brown-Hollie, J. P., Suarez‐Balcazar, Y., Parra-Medina, D. M., Camillone, S., Zeng, W., Garcia-Gomez, E., Heydarian, N. M., & Magaña, S. (2022) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-022-00335-5 · Cited by 14
“Although developmental disabilities are more prevalent among males, childhood obesity is higher among females, especially within Black and Latinx communities (CDC, 2019; Ogden et al., 2020; State of Childhood Obesity, 2020; Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
Effectiveness of CO-OP Approach for Children With Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Systematic Review
Madieu, E., Gagné-Trudel, S., Thérriault, P.-Y., & Cantin, N. (2023) · Archives of Rehabilitation Research and Clinical Translation · doi:10.1016/j.arrct.2023.100260 · Cited by 16
Spildrejorde, M., SAMARA, A. A., Sharma, A., Leithaug, M., Falck, M., Modafferi, S., Sundaram, A. Y. M., Acharya, G., Nordeng, H., Eskeland, R., et al. (2023) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2023.107755 · Cited by 14
Deng, W., Anastasopoulos, S., deRegnier, R.-A. O., Pouppirt, N. R., Barlow, A. K., Patrick, C., O’Brien, M. K., Babula, S., Sukal‐Moulton, T., Peyton, C., et al. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0291408 · Cited by 14
“More than 17% of children and adolescents born in the United States have developmental impairments [1] that may lead to long-term disability and potential adverse socio-economic and health consequences [2].”
BackgroundJaiswal, A., Kruiper, R., Rasool, A., Nandkeolyar, A., Wall, D. P., & Washington, P. Y. (2023) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/52205 · Cited by 14
Microbiome function and neurodevelopment in Black infants: vitamin B 12 emerges as a key factor
Oliphant, K., Ayala, W. C., Ilyumzhinova, R., Mbayiwa, K., Sroka, A. W., Xie, B., Andrews, B., Keenan, K. E., & Claud, E. C. (2024) · Gut Microbes · doi:10.1080/19490976.2023.2298697 · Cited by 14
“41,42 It is of note that that results from both the present study and the study conducted by Tamana et al . did not yield differences in the microbiome between the sexes, but instead demonstrated sex-specific responses to microbiome dysbiosis (Figure 2a).”
ResultHanley, A., Nguyen, Q. C., Badawi, D. G., Chen, J., Ma, T., & Slopen, N. B. (2021) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-021-00409-y · Cited by 17
“Autism prevalence has increased in the past decade [2] alongside increases in rates of developmental screening in early childhood [18].”
BackgroundFranklin, M. S., Bush, C., Jones, K. A., Davis, N. O., French, A., Howard, J., Greiner, M. A., & Maslow, G. R. (2022) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000001075 · Cited by 14
Disparities in Patient- and Family-Centered Care Among Children With Health Conditions
Kindratt, T. B., Lark, P., Ray, M., & Brannon, G. E. (2022) · Journal of Patient Experience · doi:10.1177/23743735221092494 · Cited by 14
Menstrual and reproductive health in female adolescents with developmental disabilities
Carmine, L., & Fisher, M. (2022) · Current problems in pediatric and adolescent health care · doi:10.1016/j.cppeds.2022.101243 · Cited by 14
Computerized Assessment of Cognitive Development in Neurotypical and Neurodivergent Children
Danilov, I. V., Mihailova, S., & Svajyan, A. (2022) · OBM Neurobiology · doi:10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2203137 · Cited by 14
Pietruszewski, L., Burkhardt, S., Yoder, P. J., Heathcock, J., Lewandowski, D. J., & Maitre, N. L. (2020) · Child Neurology Open · doi:10.1177/2329048x20946214 · Cited by 14
Samuel, D., O'Malley, F., Brink, F. W., Crichton, K. G., Duffy, B., Letson, M. M., & Michaels, N. L. (2023) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106354 · Cited by 13
Postural Control in Childhood: Investigating the Neurodevelopmental Gradient Hypothesis
Zoccante, L., Ciceri, M. L., Chamitava, L., Di Gennaro, G., Cazzoletti, L., Zanolin, M. E., Darra, F., & Colizzi, M. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18041693 · Cited by 13
“Introduction Since the 1960s, a rising prevalence of childhood disabilities has been documented, largely because of an increase in the prevalence of mental and behavioral conditions such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD), and Tourette Syndrome (TS), whereas the prevalence…”
BackgroundAddressing Pediatric Developmental and Mental Health in Primary Care Using Tele-Education
Harrison, J. N., Steinberg, J., Floet, A. M. W., Grace, N. C., Menon, D. U., German, R., Chen, B., Yenokyan, G., & Leppert, M. L. O. (2021) · Clinical Pediatrics · doi:10.1177/00099228211059644 · Cited by 13
“Likert-type scales measured participants’ self-report of learning priority topics from not at all helpful (1) to extremely helpful (5).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Zablotsky, B., Black, L. I., Maenner, M. J., Schieve, L. A., Danielson, M. L., Bitsko, R. H., Blumberg, S. J., Kogan, M. D., & Boyle, C. A.
- Affiliations
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
- Health Resources and Services Administration (US)
- Corresponding author
- Zablotsky, Benjamin
- ORCID
- Venue
- Pediatrics
- Publisher
- American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)
- Published
- 2019-10-01
- Volume
- 144
- Issue
- 4
- ISSN
- 0031-4005 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-4275
- PMC
- PMC7076808
- OpenAlex
- W2976851556
- Cited by
- 1,217
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 116 · 2025: 189 · 2024: 210 · 2023: 218 · 2022: 218 · 2021: 184 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 111.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- PEDIATRICS (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (CC999999)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Down syndrome and intellectual disability research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Health and Medical Studies
- Keywords
- developmental disabilities, prevalence trends, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, developmental delay, learning disabilities, cerebral palsy, hearing loss, blindness, seizures, stuttering, socioeconomic disparities, demographic disparities, children, United States
- MeSH terms
- Autism Spectrum Disorder, Adolescent, Age Factors, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Blindness, Cerebral Palsy, Child, Developmental Disabilities, Child, Preschool, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Male, Intellectual Disability, Population Dynamics, Seizures, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Stuttering, United States, Prevalence, Insurance Coverage, Hearing Loss
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