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Prevalence and Trends of Developmental Disabilities among Children in the United States: 2009–2017
Abstract
OBJECTIVES: To study the national prevalence of 10 developmental disabilities in US children aged 3 to 17 years and explore changes over time by associated demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, using the National Health Interview Survey. METHODS: Data come from the 2009 to 2017 National Health Interview Survey, a nationally representative survey of the civilian noninstitutionalized population. Parents reported physician or other health care professional diagnoses of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; autism spectrum disorder; blindness; cerebral palsy; moderate to profound hearing loss; learning disability; intellectual disability; seizures; stuttering or stammering; and other developmental delays. Weighted percentages for each of the selected developmental disabilities and any developmental disability were calculated and stratified by demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. RESULTS: From 2009 to 2011 and 2015 to 2017, there were overall significant increases in the prevalence of any developmental disability (16.2%–17.8%, P < .001), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (8.5%–9.5%, P < .01), autism spectrum disorder (1.1%–2.5%, P < .001), and intellectual disability (0.9%–1.2%, P < .05), but a significant decrease for any other developmental delay (4.7%–4.1%, P < .05). The prevalence of any developmental disability increased among boys, older children, non-Hispanic white and Hispanic children, children with private insurance only, children with birth weight ≥2500 g, and children living in urban areas and with less-educated mothers. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of developmental disability among US children aged 3 to 17 years increased between 2009 and 2017. Changes by demographic and socioeconomic subgroups may be related to improvements in awareness and access to health care.
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“Developmental delays and disabilities are common in children, affecting up to 18% of children aged 3 to 17 years in the United States, according to recent national estimates.1”
From Early Childhood Care Coordination Through 211: A Randomized Clinical Trial (2024) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“In a large US parent report survey in 88,530 children aged 3–17 years, the rate of any neurodevelopmental condition, including ADHD, autism, speech fluency disorder (stuttering), learning disorders, intellectual disabilities or any other developmental delay was 12.6% in females and 22.7% in males12.”
From Sex and gender in neurodevelopmental conditions (2023) · cites this paper as [12]
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BackgroundNeuroplastin in Neuropsychiatric Diseases
Lin, X., Liang, Y. C., Herrera‐Molina, R., & Montag, D. (2021) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes12101507 · Cited by 23
Vlachou, J. A., Polychroni, F., Drigas, A. S., & Economou, A. (2022) · International Journal of Recent Contributions from Engineering Science & IT (iJES) · doi:10.3991/ijes.v10i01.29079 · Cited by 23
Roux, A. M., Tao, S., Marcus, S. C., Lushin, V., & Shea, L. (2022) · Disability and health journal · doi:10.1016/j.dhjo.2022.101289 · Cited by 23
Latent class analysis to characterize neonatal risk for neurodevelopmental differences
Momany, A. M., Jasper, E. A., Markon, K. E., Nikolas, M. A., & Ryckman, K. K. (2022) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13671 · Cited by 23
“Given the increased prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders observed in males, it is important to consider biological sex when examining risk factors for neurodevelopmental deficits (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2014; Visser et al., 2014; Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
BackgroundPark, S.-B., Ju, Y., Kwon, H.-J., Youm, H.-O., Kim, M. J., & Chung, J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192416499 · Cited by 23
“The associated symptoms generally start during the period of growth and persist throughout their lifetime [1].”
BackgroundPrevalence of neurodevelopmental differences and autism in Scottish primary schools 2018–2022
Maciver, D., Rutherford, M., Johnston, L., & Roy, A. S. (2023) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3063 · Cited by 23
“…seg-regated settings toward an understanding that most children with neurodevelopmental differences should be educated in inclusive, “ mainstream, ” or community schools (Beckman et al., 2016; Bitta et al., 2017; Bölte et al., 2021; Bonati et al., 2018; Sokal & Katz, 2020; Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
BackgroundAtkinson, J., Gordon, H. G., Tong, S. Y. C., Walker, S. P., Mehdipour, P., Lindquist, A., & Hastie, R. M. (2025) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1004558 · Cited by 22
“Despite increasing prevalence in recent decades, the origins of neurodevelopmental disorders are not well-defined [4,5].”
Time to be counted: COVID-19 and intellectual and developmental disabilities—an RSC Policy Briefing
Majnemer, A., McGrath, P. J., Baumbusch, J., Camden, C., Fallon, B., Lunsky, Y., Miller, S. P., Sansone, G. C., Stainton, T., Sumarah, J., et al. (2021) · FACETS · doi:10.1139/facets-2021-0038 · Cited by 22
“, 2019) and ADHD, which is estimated at 6-9% (Perrin, Bloom & Gortmaker, 2007; Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialSchiltz, H. K., McVey, A. J., Gonring, K., Haendel, A. D., Murphy, C. C., Hecke, A. V. V., & Gerdes, A. C. (2021) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-021-02083-2 · Cited by 25
Emmanuel, C. J., Knafl, K. A., Hodges, E. A., Docherty, S. L., O’Shea, T. M., & Junior, H. P. D. O. S. (2022) · Research in Nursing & Health · doi:10.1002/nur.22217 · Cited by 22
Kammer, P. V., Moro, J. D. S., Soares, J. P., Massignan, C., Phadraig, C. M. G., & Bolan, M. (2022) · Journal of Oral Rehabilitation · doi:10.1111/joor.13315 · Cited by 22
Oral health needs of U.S. children with developmental disorders: a population-based study
Obeidat, R., Noureldin, A. A. K., Bitouni, A., Abdellatif, H. M., Lewis-Miranda, S., Liu, S., Badner, V., & Timothé, P. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-13237-2 · Cited by 24
“Mindful of the increasing prevalence of DD in children [20], we undertook this study to investigate the impact of access to healthcare-related factors on the OHN of children with DD at the national level.”
BackgroundEnhanced Expression of Human Endogenous Retroviruses, TRIM28 and SETDB1 in Autism Spectrum Disorder
Tovo, P., Davico, C., Marcotulli, D., Vitiello, B., Daprà, V., Calvi, C., Montanari, P., Carpino, A., Galliano, I., & Bergallo, M. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23115964 · Cited by 23
“The prevalence of ASD has steadily increased for the last decades [111,112].”
BackgroundMetabolomic and exposomic biomarkers of risk of future neurodevelopmental delay in human milk
Li, K., Bertrand, K. A., Naviaux, J. C., Monk, J. M., Wells, A., Wang, L., Lingampelly, S. S., Naviaux, R. K., & Chambers, C. (2022) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-022-02283-6 · Cited by 22
“We also conducted an extensive literature review of known HM metabolites using the text-mining tool PolySearch.2,31 All compounds were mapped to standard chemical identifiers such as PubChem, CAS, and HMDB using the metabolite ID conversion tool in MetaboAnalyst 5.0, and the data harmonization results were manually ch…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMarquis, S., O’Leary, R., Hayden, N., & Baumbusch, J. (2022) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.12789 · Cited by 26
Wei, W., Chen, L., Zhou, H., Liu, J., Zhang, Y., Feng, S., Bai, Y., Leng, Y.-E., Chang, E., & Huang, L. (2023) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2023.1208456 · Cited by 29
“ADHD develops in approximately 9%– 15% of school-aged children, rendering it one of the most common disorders in childhood (Merikangas et al., 2010; Wolraich et al., 2014; Rowland et al., 2015; Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
BackgroundDetection of Constitutional Structural Variants by Optical Genome Mapping
Broeckel, U., Iqbal, M. A., Levy, B., Sahajpal, N., Nagy, P. L., Scharer, G. H., Rodriguez, V., Bossler, A., Stence, A. A., Skinner, C. D., et al. (2024) · Journal of Molecular Diagnostics · doi:10.1016/j.jmoldx.2023.12.003 · Cited by 24
Ahmed, S. K., Jeffries, D., Chakraborty, A., Carslake, T., Lietz, P. N., Rahayu, B., Armstrong, D., Kaushik, A., & Sundarsagar, K. (2022) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.1287 · Cited by 33
“• Developmental disabilities (DDs) are defined by Zablotsky et al. (2019) as ‘a group of lifelong conditions due to an impairment in physical, learning, language, or behaviour areas’ and notes ‘Children diagnosed with developmental disabilities typically require services to address behavioural and…”
Neuroanatomical Alterations in the CNTNAP2 Mouse Model of Autism Spectrum Disorder
Gandhi, T., Canepa, C. R., Adeyelu, T. T., Adeniyi, P. A., & Lee, C. C. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13060891 · Cited by 22
Maternal Inflammatory Proteins in Pregnancy and Neurodevelopmental Disorders at Age 10 Years
Wang, T., Mohammadzadeh, P., Jepsen, J. R. M., Thorsen, J., Rosenberg, J. B., Lemvigh, C. K., Brustad, N., Chen, L., Ali, M., Vinding, R., et al. (2025) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2025.0122 · Cited by 22
Psychosocial Wellbeing of Nigerian Teachers in Special Education Schools
Olagunju, A. T., Akinola, M. A., Fadipe, B., Jagun, O., Olagunju, T. O., Akinola, O., Ogunnubi, O. P., Olusile, O. J., Oluyemi, O. Y., & Chaimowitz, G. A. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04606-0 · Cited by 21
Weismer, S. E., Rubenstein, E., Wiggins, L. D., & Durkin, M. S. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04737-4 · Cited by 21
An ecological model to frame the delivery of pediatric preventive care
Graif, C., Meurer, J., & Fontana, M. (2021) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2021-050693d · Cited by 21
Munn, E. E., Ruby, L., & Pangelinan, M. M. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm10235557 · Cited by 21
Kaur, S., Morales‐Hidalgo, P., Arija, V., & Canals, J. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20085443 · Cited by 21
Sullivan, A. D. W., Bozack, A. K., Cárdenas, A., Comer, J. S., Bagner, D. M., Forehand, R., & Parent, J. M. (2023) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976231194221 · Cited by 23
Child Health Needs and the Developmental–Behavioral Pediatrics Workforce Supply: 2020–2040
Baum, R., Berman, B. D., Fussell, J. J., Patel, R. V., Roizen, N., Voigt, R. G., & Leslie, L. K. (2024) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2023-063678h · Cited by 21
A Genetic Bridge Between Medicine and Neurodiversity for Autism
Leblond, C. S., Rolland, T., Barthome, E., Mougin, Z., Fleury, M., Ecker, C., Bonnot-Briey, S., Cliquet, F., Tabet, A., Maruani, A., et al. (2024) · Annual Review of Genetics · doi:10.1146/annurev-genet-111523-102614 · Cited by 23
Metadata
- Authors
- Zablotsky, B., Black, L. I., Maenner, M. J., Schieve, L. A., Danielson, M. L., Bitsko, R. H., Blumberg, S. J., Kogan, M. D., & Boyle, C. A.
- Affiliations
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
- Health Resources and Services Administration (US)
- Corresponding author
- Zablotsky, Benjamin
- ORCID
- Venue
- Pediatrics
- Publisher
- American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)
- Published
- 2019-10-01
- Volume
- 144
- Issue
- 4
- ISSN
- 0031-4005 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-4275
- PMC
- PMC7076808
- OpenAlex
- W2976851556
- Cited by
- 1,217
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 116 · 2025: 189 · 2024: 210 · 2023: 218 · 2022: 218 · 2021: 184 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 111.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- PEDIATRICS (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (CC999999)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Down syndrome and intellectual disability research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Health and Medical Studies
- Keywords
- developmental disabilities, prevalence trends, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, developmental delay, learning disabilities, cerebral palsy, hearing loss, blindness, seizures, stuttering, socioeconomic disparities, demographic disparities, children, United States
- MeSH terms
- Autism Spectrum Disorder, Adolescent, Age Factors, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Blindness, Cerebral Palsy, Child, Developmental Disabilities, Child, Preschool, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Male, Intellectual Disability, Population Dynamics, Seizures, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Stuttering, United States, Prevalence, Insurance Coverage, Hearing Loss
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