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Prevalence and Trends of Developmental Disabilities among Children in the United States: 2009–2017
Abstract
OBJECTIVES: To study the national prevalence of 10 developmental disabilities in US children aged 3 to 17 years and explore changes over time by associated demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, using the National Health Interview Survey. METHODS: Data come from the 2009 to 2017 National Health Interview Survey, a nationally representative survey of the civilian noninstitutionalized population. Parents reported physician or other health care professional diagnoses of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; autism spectrum disorder; blindness; cerebral palsy; moderate to profound hearing loss; learning disability; intellectual disability; seizures; stuttering or stammering; and other developmental delays. Weighted percentages for each of the selected developmental disabilities and any developmental disability were calculated and stratified by demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. RESULTS: From 2009 to 2011 and 2015 to 2017, there were overall significant increases in the prevalence of any developmental disability (16.2%–17.8%, P < .001), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (8.5%–9.5%, P < .01), autism spectrum disorder (1.1%–2.5%, P < .001), and intellectual disability (0.9%–1.2%, P < .05), but a significant decrease for any other developmental delay (4.7%–4.1%, P < .05). The prevalence of any developmental disability increased among boys, older children, non-Hispanic white and Hispanic children, children with private insurance only, children with birth weight ≥2500 g, and children living in urban areas and with less-educated mothers. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of developmental disability among US children aged 3 to 17 years increased between 2009 and 2017. Changes by demographic and socioeconomic subgroups may be related to improvements in awareness and access to health care.
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“Developmental delays and disabilities are common in children, affecting up to 18% of children aged 3 to 17 years in the United States, according to recent national estimates.1”
From Early Childhood Care Coordination Through 211: A Randomized Clinical Trial (2024) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“In a large US parent report survey in 88,530 children aged 3–17 years, the rate of any neurodevelopmental condition, including ADHD, autism, speech fluency disorder (stuttering), learning disorders, intellectual disabilities or any other developmental delay was 12.6% in females and 22.7% in males12.”
From Sex and gender in neurodevelopmental conditions (2023) · cites this paper as [12]
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Burkett, K., Brown, C. L., Pickler, R. H., Stanton‐Chapman, T. L., Sharps, P. W., Jacquez, F., Smith, T. C., Holland, A., Heeman, A., & Froehlich, T. E. (2024) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000001327 · Cited by 5
“1,16 However, for participants, adherence was minimally due to the lack of follow-through on the part of parents.”
Notario-Barandiarán, L., Bauer, J. A., Laue, H. E., Signes‐Pastor, A. J., Jackson, B. P., Peacock, J. L., Madan, J. C., Bellinger, D. C., Korrick, S., & Karagas, M. R. (2025) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1021/ehp.6c00030 · Cited by 5
Frazier, T. W., Huba, K., Frazier, A. R., Womack, R. A., Youngstrom, E. A., Chetcuti, L., Hardan, A. Y., & Uljarević, M. (2025) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.reia.2025.202646 · Cited by 5
Stevanović, D. (2021) · Engrami · doi:10.5937/engrami43-32939 · Cited by 5
Kravets, M. E., Klebanoff, M. A., & Keim, S. A. (2022) · Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease · doi:10.1017/s2040174422000472 · Cited by 5
Morgan, W. S., Schultz, K. V., Adiba, A., & Lohr, W. D. (2022) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.chc.2022.06.011 · Cited by 5
PASS neurocognitive assessment of children with autism spectrum disorder
Otero, T. M., & Naglieri, J. A. (2022) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22798 · Cited by 6
ADHD among Indonesian Primary School Students: Measurement and Prevalence
Wimbarti, S., & Kusrohmaniah, S. (2023) · Journal of Educational Health and Community Psychology · doi:10.12928/jehcp.v1i1.26044 · Cited by 10
A call for action: Increasing the pediatric rehabilitation medicine workforce
Turk, M. A., Gans, B. M., Kim, H., & Alter, K. E. (2023) · Journal of Pediatric Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.3233/prm-230044 · Cited by 5
“However, the prevalence for other developmental and/or congenital disabilities, such as cerebral palsy and spina bifida, has remained relatively stable [14, 15].”
BackgroundIdentification of novel SHANK2 variants in two Chinese families via exome and RNA sequencing
Wu, Y., Li, W., Tan, B., & Luo, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1275421 · Cited by 5
Khadka, N., Peltier, M. R., Fassett, M., Mensah, N. A., Yeh, M., Chiu, V. Y., Oyelese, Y., & Getahun, D. (2024) · Jornal de Pediatria · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2024.113997 · Cited by 5
Behavior Analysis and the Delivery of Services in Austria: A Call for Dissemination
DeSouza, A. A., & Konrad, M.-H. (2021) · Behavior and Social Issues · doi:10.1007/s42822-021-00050-6 · Cited by 5
“Dissemination barriers The number of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other developmental disabilities has vastly increased in the last decade, with an overall significant increase of 16.93% from 2009 to 2017 (Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialMcIntyre, N. S., Loughran, C., & Towson, J. A. (2022) · Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups · doi:10.1044/2022_persp-22-00014 · Cited by 5
More similarities than differences between ADHD and ASD in functional brain connectivityPreprint
Bathelt, J., Caan, M. W. A., & Geurts, H. M. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/4tfmn · Cited by 5
The Development of Social Competence in Children with Disabilities
Hong, S., Steed, E. A., Meyer, L. E., & Acar, İ. H. (2022) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119679028.ch41 · Cited by 6
Tanksley, P. T., Brislin, S. J., Wertz, J., de Vlaming, R., Courchesne‐Krak, N. S., Mallard, T. T., Raffington, L., Linnér, R. K., Koellinger, P., Palmer, A. A., et al. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.05.31.23290802 · Cited by 5
Excess Neonatal Testosterone Causes Male-Specific Social and Fear Memory Deficits in Wild-Type Mice
Quiñones-Labernik, P., Blocklinger, K. L., Bruce, M. R., Hagan, E., Preuschl, D., Tesar, C., & Ferri, S. L. (2025) · eneuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0020-25.2025 · Cited by 4
“Neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric conditions are prevalent and can be dif fi cult to treat; they are emotionally, physically, and fi nancially taxing to affected individuals, their families, and communities (Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
Bisla, T., Shukla, R., Dhawan, M., Islam, M. R., & Horio, K. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Computing and Communication Technologies (CONECCT) · doi:10.1109/conecct62155.2024.10677280 · Cited by 4
“The 2009–2017 National Health Interview Survey found a 16.2%-17.8% increase in developmental impairments in 3–17-year-olds [3].”
BackgroundInfluentialHealth disparities persist for adults with developmental disabilities: NHIS insights, 1999-2018
McLean, K. J., Koenig, J., Wolpe, S., Song, W., & Bishop, L. (2025) · Health Affairs Scholar · doi:10.1093/haschl/qxae158 · Cited by 5
The PTCHD1 protein: A prominent actor in brain function and in neurodevelopmental disorders
Ung, D. C., Martin, S., Hérault, Y., & Laumonnier, F. (2025) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106307 · Cited by 6
Sarraf, M., Girdler, S. J., & Bölte, S. (2025) · Cities & Health · doi:10.1080/23748834.2025.2535246 · Cited by 4
“Despite the significance of public transport for the autistic community and the prevalence of neurodevelopmental conditions being recognized as one of the most prevalent conditions impacting human functioning (Zablotsky et al .”
Peyre, H., Rios, P., Botton, J., Herlemont, P., Olié, V., Miranda, S., Zureik, M., Weill, A., & Dray‐Spira, R. (2026) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-026-03607-2 · Cited by 4
“Sex also plays a critical role in the development of NDDs, with male children consistently showing a higher vulnerability to NDDs, with male-to-female ratios typically ranging from 2:1 – 5:1 depending on the speci fi c disorder and study population [5, 7, 8, 13, 31, 32].”
Vaknin‐Nusbaum, V., & Rachevski, I. (2023) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194231211947 · Cited by 6
“Third, the prevalence of students LD reported in this study and in Israel in general, is relatively high compared with what is reported in the literature (Grigorenko et al., 2020; Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
ResultRosinda, S. J., Hoekstra, P. J., Hadders‐Algra, M., de Bildt, A. A., & Heineman, K. R. (2024) · Early Human Development · doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2024.106097 · Cited by 4
Mia, M. R., Ahamed, S. I., & Nemanich, S. T. (2024) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/57802 · Cited by 4
“In the United States, more than 17% of children (1 in 6) aged 3-17 years were diagnosed with a developmental disability [1], many of which affect UL motor function and limit independence and quality of life.”
Kanniappan, V., Muthuperumal, P., Venkataraman, P., Murugesan, A., Chinnasami, B., Muthiah, M., Sethuraman, S., Abishek, J. R., Suresh, S., Nambirajan, M. K., et al. (2025) · Archives of Public Health · doi:10.1186/s13690-024-01495-y · Cited by 4
Lai, C.-C., & Wu, C.-C. (2025) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000041867 · Cited by 4
“[2,3] The 3 core characteristics of ASDs are social deficits, communication impairment, and restrictive and repetitive interests.”
Etiology and prognostic significance of ictal EEG patterns in patients with non‐convulsive seizures
Singh, J., Gopal, M., Amin, A., & Peng, J. (2022) · Epileptic Disorders · doi:10.1684/epd.2021.1363 · Cited by 4
Expanding Developmental and Behavioral Health Capacity in Pediatric Primary Care
Jeung, J., Talgo, J., Sparks, A., & Martin-Herz, S. P. (2023) · Clinical Pediatrics · doi:10.1177/00099228221147753 · Cited by 4
Alper, M., Manganello, J. A., & Colvin, K. F. (2023) · Journal of Children and Media · doi:10.1080/17482798.2023.2180045 · Cited by 6
“In the U.S., an estimated 1 in 6 children aged between 3 to 12 years of age has a developmental disability (e.g., autism, learning disability) (Zablotsky et al., 2019).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Zablotsky, B., Black, L. I., Maenner, M. J., Schieve, L. A., Danielson, M. L., Bitsko, R. H., Blumberg, S. J., Kogan, M. D., & Boyle, C. A.
- Affiliations
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
- Health Resources and Services Administration (US)
- Corresponding author
- Zablotsky, Benjamin
- ORCID
- Venue
- Pediatrics
- Publisher
- American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)
- Published
- 2019-10-01
- Volume
- 144
- Issue
- 4
- ISSN
- 0031-4005 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-4275
- PMC
- PMC7076808
- OpenAlex
- W2976851556
- Cited by
- 1,217
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 116 · 2025: 189 · 2024: 210 · 2023: 218 · 2022: 218 · 2021: 184 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 111.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- PEDIATRICS (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (CC999999)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Down syndrome and intellectual disability research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Health and Medical Studies
- Keywords
- developmental disabilities, prevalence trends, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, developmental delay, learning disabilities, cerebral palsy, hearing loss, blindness, seizures, stuttering, socioeconomic disparities, demographic disparities, children, United States
- MeSH terms
- Autism Spectrum Disorder, Adolescent, Age Factors, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Blindness, Cerebral Palsy, Child, Developmental Disabilities, Child, Preschool, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Male, Intellectual Disability, Population Dynamics, Seizures, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Stuttering, United States, Prevalence, Insurance Coverage, Hearing Loss
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