Global Prevalence of Autism and Other Pervasive Developmental Disorders
Open accessAbstract
We provide a systematic review of epidemiological surveys of autistic disorder and pervasive developmental disorders ( PDDs ) worldwide. A secondary aim was to consider the possible impact of geographic, cultural/ethnic, and socioeconomic factors on prevalence estimates and on clinical presentation of PDD . Based on the evidence reviewed, the median of prevalence estimates of autism spectrum disorders was 62/10 000. While existing estimates are variable, the evidence reviewed does not support differences in PDD prevalence by geographic region nor of a strong impact of ethnic/cultural or socioeconomic factors. However, power to detect such effects is seriously limited in existing data sets, particularly in low‐income countries. While it is clear that prevalence estimates have increased over time and these vary in different neighboring and distant regions, these findings most likely represent broadening of the diagnostic concets, diagnostic switching from other developmental disabilities to PDD , service availability, and awareness of autistic spectrum disorders in both the lay and professional public. The lack of evidence from the majority of the world's population suggests a critical need for further research and capacity building in low‐ and middle‐income countries. Autism Res 2012, 5: 160–179. © 2012 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has surged, with an estimated 1 in 36 eight-year-olds in the United States meeting criteria for ASD in 2020.
“The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has surged, with an estimated 1 in 36 eight-year-olds in the United States meeting criteria for ASD in 2020.”
From Pharmacological treatment in autism: a proposal for guidelines on common co-occurring psychiatric symptoms (2025) · cites this paper as [2]
The ‘Phenotypic presentation of PDD’ section (page unavailable) reports a rise in measured prevalence over time, while cautioning that changing diagnostic and case-identification practices can affect the trend. The paper does not support the specific estimate of 1 in 36 U.S. eight-year-olds in 2020; its ‘America Prevalence Estimates’ section reports earlier, different estimates. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredResearch suggests that the identification of ASD, rather than the true prevalence, differs by social class.
“Research suggests that the identification of ASD, rather than the true prevalence, differs by social class (Elsabbagh et al. 2012).”
From The Diagnosis of Autism: From Kanner to DSM-III to DSM-5 and Beyond (2021) · cites this paper as Elsabbagh et al. 2012
One systematic review did not find a strong effect of ethnic, cultural or socioeconomic factors on the prevalence of autism.
“Indeed, one systematic review did not find a strong effect of ethnic, cultural or socioeconomic factors on the prevalence of autism [Au:OK] 7 .”
From Autism spectrum disorder (2020) · cites this paper as [7]
More recently, the median of prevalence estimates of ASD worldwide was 62/10,000 (Elsabbagh et al. 2012).
“More recently, the median of prevalence estimates of ASD worldwide was given as 62/10 000 (Elsabbagh et al. 2012).”
From Annual Research Review: Looking back to look forward – changes in the concept of autism and implications for future research (2020) · cites this paper as Elsabbagh et al. 2012
The 2012 systematic review found that estimates were mainly available for children, with very few studies including populations older than 18 years of age.
“estimates were mainly available for children, with very few studies including populations older than 18 years of age”
From Global prevalence of autism: A systematic review update (2022) · cites this paper as Elsabbagh et al., 2012
The 2012 systematic review distinguished a median prevalence of 17 per 10,000 for Autistic Disorder and 62 per 10,000 for ASD.
“the median was 17/10,000 for the former and 62/10,000 for the latter”
From Global prevalence of autism: A systematic review update (2022) · cites this paper as Elsabbagh et al., 2012
The 2012 systematic review found a median ASD prevalence of 62 per 10,000 children.
“the last systematic review of global prevalence conducted in 2012 found that the median prevalence of ASD was 62/10,000 children”
From Global prevalence of autism: A systematic review update (2022) · cites this paper as Elsabbagh et al., 2012
The 2012 systematic review found consistently higher autism prevalence in boys.
“with a consistently higher prevalence in boys”
From Global prevalence of autism: A systematic review update (2022) · cites this paper as Elsabbagh et al., 2012
The 2012 systematic review found substantial variability in autism prevalence estimates within and across geographic regions.
“There was substantial variability in estimates within and across geographic regions”
From Global prevalence of autism: A systematic review update (2022) · cites this paper as Elsabbagh et al., 2012
The prevalence of ASD worldwide has increased in recent decades.
“The prevalence of ASD worldwide has increased in recent decades [71, 78, 92].”
From The global prevalence of autism spectrum disorder: a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis. (2022) · cites this paper as [92]
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a behaviorally defined condition predominantly found in males.
“Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a behaviorally defined condition predominantly found in males [10, 19, 40, 49].”
From Linguistic camouflage in girls with autism spectrum disorder (2017) · cites this paper as [19]
ASD is more common in males than females, with an approximate 4:1 risk ratio estimate from literature review and a school-based prevalence study of 8-year-olds.
“ASD is more common in males than females [2], with an approximate 4:1 risk ratio estimate emerging both from literature review [3] and a school-based prevalence study of 8-year-olds [4].”
From Early sex differences are not autism-specific: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium (BSRC) study (2015) · cites this paper as [2]
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“…in the United Kingdom (UK) has an autism spectrum condition (Baird et al., 2006; Brugha et al., 2011) – more than a 20-fold increase from the results of the first epidemiological study (Lotter, 1966) – and such estimates are similar in other parts of the world (e.g. Elsabbagh et al., 2012).”
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BackgroundAdults with Autism Spectrum Disorders
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- Authors
- Elsabbagh, M., Divan, G., Koh, Y., Kim, Y. S., Kauchali, S., Marcín, C., Montiel‐Nava, C., Patel, V., Paula, C. S., Wang, C., Yasamy, M. T., & Fombonne, E.
- Affiliations
- Montreal Children's Hospital (CA)
- Sangath (IN)
- The Korea Institute for Children's Social Development Seoul South Korea
- Yale University (US)
- Columbia University (US)
- Mexican Autism Clinic Mexico City Mexico
- Universidad del Zulia (VE)
- London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (GB)
- Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie (BR)
- Nankai University (CN)
- World Health Organization (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Fombonne, Eric
- ORCID
- Venue
- Autism Research
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2012-04-11
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 160-179
- ISSN
- 1939-3792 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-3806
- PMC
- PMC3763210
- OpenAlex
- W2098251401
- Semantic Scholar
- 5cb02ee6c3aaa993beaf5ce1379539f54d9d5d61
- Cited by
- 2,636
- References
- 88
- Citations by year
- 2026: 87 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 149 · 2023: 197 · 2022: 296 · 2021: 308 · 2020: 283 · 2019: 194 · 2018: 223 · 2017: 181 · 2016: 195 · 2015: 163 · 2014: 127 · 2013: 75 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 62.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Autism Research (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BIROn (Birkbeck, University of London) (acceptedVersion)
- ScholarWorks @ UTRGV (The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Autism Speaks (AS5621)
- Johns Hopkins University
- Wellcome Trust (091834)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, pervasive developmental disorders, autism prevalence, global prevalence, ethnic and cultural factors, socioeconomic factors, regional variation, prevalence trends, low- and middle-income countries, epidemiological survey
- MeSH terms
- Autistic Disorder, Child, Child Development Disorders, Pervasive, Cross-Sectional Studies, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Developing Countries, Health Surveys, Humans, Socioeconomic Factors, Global Health
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