The DOI matches its Crossref record; 1 of the 1 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System
Open accessAbstract
A purely peer-to-peer version of electronic cash would allow online payments to be sent directly from one party to another without the burdens of going through a financial institution. Digital signatures provide part of the solution, but the main benefits are lost if a trusted third party is still required to prevent double-spending. We propose a solution to the double-spending problem using a peer-to-peer network. The network timestamps transactions by hashing them into an ongoing chain of hash-based proof-of-work, forming a record that cannot be changed without redoing the proof-of-work. The longest chain not only serves as proof of the sequence of events witnessed, but proof that it came from the largest pool of CPU power. As long as honest nodes control the most CPU power on the network, they can generate the longest chain and outpace any attackers. The network itself requires minimal structure. Messages are broadcast on a best effort basis, and nodes can leave and rejoin the network at will, accepting the longest proof-of-work chain as proof of what happened while they were gone.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Protocols for Public Key Cryptosystems
Merkle, R. C. (1980) · 1980 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy · doi:10.1109/sp.1980.10006 · Cited by 1,418
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- W Dai, 1998, b-money
- H Massias, 1999, Design of a secure timestamping service with minimal trust requirements, 20th Symposium on Information Theory in the Benelux
- S Haber, 1991, How to time-stamp a digital document, Journal of Cryptology, 3, 99, 10.1007/BF00196791 · DOI · Paper page
- D Bayer, 1993, Improving the efficiency and reliability of digital time-stamping, Sequences II: Methods in Communication, Security and Computer Science, 329, 10.1007/978-1-4613-9323-8_24 · DOI · Paper page
- S Haber, 1997, Secure names for bit-strings, Proceedings of the 4th ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security, 28
- A Back, 2002, Hashcash -a denial of service counter-measure
- W Feller, 1957, An introduction to probability theory and its applications
Cited by
Items 201–249 of 249
Axelsen, H., Jensen, J., & Ross, O. (2022) · Complex Systems Informatics and Modeling Quarterly · doi:10.7250/csimq.2022-31.04 · Cited by 41
Analysis of the Potentials of Blockchain for the Governance of Global Digital Commons
Rozas, D., Tenorio-Fornés, A., & Hassan, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Blockchain · doi:10.3389/fbloc.2021.577680 · Cited by 45
Towards a Blockchain based Fall Prediction Model for Aged Care
Rupasinghe, T., Burstein, F., Rudolph, C., & Strange, S. (2019) · Proceedings of the Australasian Computer Science Week Multiconference · doi:10.1145/3290688.3290736 · Cited by 40
STewARD:SDN and blockchain-based Trust evaluation for Automated Risk management on IoT Devices
Boussard, M., Papillon, S., Peloso, P., Signorini, M., & Waisbard, E. (2019) · IEEE INFOCOM 2019 - IEEE Conference on Computer Communications Workshops (INFOCOM WKSHPS) · doi:10.1109/infcomw.2019.8845126 · Cited by 39
To what extent will blockchain drive the machine economy? Perspectives from a prospective study
Schweizer, A., Knoll, P., Urbach, N., von der Gracht, H. A., & Hardjono, T. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management · doi:10.1109/tem.2020.2979286 · Cited by 39
A blockchain empowered and privacy preserving digital contact tracing platform
Bandara, E., Liang, X., Foytik, P., Shetty, S., Hall, C., Bowden, D., Ranasinghe, N., & De Zoysa, K. (2021) · Information Processing & Management · doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2021.102572 · Cited by 39
Zou, S., Xi, J., Xu, G., Zhang, M., & Lu, Y. (2022) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2021.3084937 · Cited by 39
Corking by Forking: Vulnerability Analysis of Blockchain
Wang, S., Wang, C., & Hu, Q. (2019) · IEEE INFOCOM 2019 - IEEE Conference on Computer Communications · doi:10.1109/infocom.2019.8737490 · Cited by 39
Tribal Governance: The Business of Blockchain Authentication
Miscione, G., Ziolkowski, R., Zavolokina, L., & Schwabe, G. (2018) · Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences · doi:10.24251/hicss.2018.566 · Cited by 38
“Of course, computer scientists have been first movers to approach this emerging phenomenon and proposing many variants of the architecture concept outlined by Nakamoto [32].”
BackgroundThe Real World of the Decentralized Autonomous Society
Garrod, J. Z. (2016) · tripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique. Open Access Journal for a Global Sustainable Information Society · doi:10.31269/triplec.v14i1.692 · Cited by 41
Hasan, M., Rahman, A., & Islam, M. J. (2020) · 2020 2nd International Conference on Advanced Information and Communication Technology (ICAICT) · doi:10.1109/icaict51780.2020.9333523 · Cited by 40
Blackchain: scalability for resource-constrained accountable vehicle-to-x communication
van der Heijden, R. W., Engelmann, F., Mödinger, D., Schönig, F., & Kargl, F. (2017) · Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Scalable and Resilient Infrastructures for Distributed Ledgers · doi:10.1145/3152824.3152828 · Cited by 34
A Trusted Approach for Decentralised and Privacy-Preserving Identity Management
Moreno, R. T., Garcia-Rodriguez, J., Bernabe, J. B., & Skarmeta, A. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3099837 · Cited by 33
“Although the popularity of these technologies is due to the irruption of Bitcoin [7] and other cryptocurrencies, their application has been demonstrated in other cases such as border control, e-voting, e-residence, authorship management, supply chains, etc.”
BackgroundYuan, L., He, Q., Tan, S., Li, B., Yu, J., Chen, F., & Yang, Y. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems · doi:10.1109/tpds.2022.3231296 · Cited by 33
Ito, K., Tago, K., & Jin, Q. (2018) · 2018 9th International Conference on Information Technology in Medicine and Education (ITME) · doi:10.1109/itme.2018.00186 · Cited by 33
An IoT-Applicable Access Control Model Under Double-Layer Blockchain
Li, Z., Hao, J., Liu, J., Wang, H., & Xian, M. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs · doi:10.1109/tcsii.2020.3045031 · Cited by 33
Blockchain-Based Management of Video Surveillance Systems
Jeong, Y., Hwang, D., & Kim, K.-H. (2019) · 2019 International Conference on Information Networking (ICOIN) · doi:10.1109/icoin.2019.8718126 · Cited by 32
UCoin: An Efficient Privacy Preserving Scheme for Cryptocurrencies
Nosouhi, M. R., Yu, S., Sood, K., Grobler, M., Jurdak, R., Dorri, A., & Shen, S. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing · doi:10.1109/tdsc.2021.3130952 · Cited by 32
A Blockchain Implementation for the Cataloguing of CCTV Video Evidence
Kerr, M., Han, F., & Schyndel, R. V. (2018) · 2018 15th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Video and Signal Based Surveillance (AVSS) · doi:10.1109/avss.2018.8639440 · Cited by 31
A Comparative Survey on Blockchain Based Self Sovereign Identity System
Kaneriya, J., & Patel, H. (2020) · 2020 3rd International Conference on Intelligent Sustainable Systems (ICISS) · doi:10.1109/iciss49785.2020.9315899 · Cited by 31
Economic Issues in Bitcoin Mining and Blockchain Research
Qin, R., Yuan, Y., Wang, S., & Wang, F.-Y. (2018) · 2018 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV) · doi:10.1109/ivs.2018.8500377 · Cited by 31
Privacy-Preserving and Security in SDN-Based IoT: A Survey
Ahmadvand, H., Lal, C., Hemmati, H., Sookhak, M., & Conti, M. (2023) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2023.3267764 · Cited by 31
Is BlockChain Mining Profitable in the Long Run
Islam, N., Marinakis, Y., Olson, S., White, R., & Walsh, S. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management · doi:10.1109/tem.2020.3045774 · Cited by 30
The Unreasonable Fundamental Incertitudes Behind Bitcoin Mining
Courtois, N. T., Grajek, M., & Naik, R. (2013) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1310.7935 · Cited by 29
“It was NOT proposed in the original paper of 2008 cf. [51] which simply says that any needed rules and incentives can be enforced .”
BackgroundInfluentialDecentralized Privacy-preserving Timed Execution in Blockchain-based Smart Contract Platforms
Li, C., & Palanisamy, B. (2019) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1902.05613 · Cited by 27
Decentralizing Digital Identity: Open Challenges for Distributed Ledgers
Dunphy, P., Garratt, L., & Petitcolas, F. (2018) · 2018 IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy Workshops (EuroS&PW) · doi:10.1109/eurospw.2018.00016 · Cited by 26
An ISO/IEC 15408-2 Compliant Security Auditing System with Blockchain Technology
Cha, S.-C., & Yeh, K.-H. (2018) · 2018 IEEE Conference on Communications and Network Security (CNS) · doi:10.1109/cns.2018.8433185 · Cited by 25
Barinaga, E. (2020) · Frontiers in Blockchain · doi:10.3389/fbloc.2020.575851 · Cited by 23
“The first focused on doing away with financial institutions altogether (Nakamoto, 2008; Vigna and Casey, 2015; Swartz, 2017).”
BackgroundEdge Computing Enabled Resilient Wireless Network Virtualization for Internet of Things
Rawat, D. B., Parwez, M. S., & Alshammari, A. (2017) · 2017 IEEE 3rd International Conference on Collaboration and Internet Computing (CIC) · doi:10.1109/cic.2017.00030 · Cited by 23
A model for blockchain-based distributed electronic health records
Quaini, T., Roehrs, A., da Costa, C. A., & da Rosa Righi, R. (2018) · IADIS INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON WWW/INTERNET · doi:10.33965/ijwi_2018161205 · Cited by 23
The challenges of existence, status, and value for improving blockchain
Lin, F., & Qiang, M. (2019) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2018.2888697 · Cited by 22
Blockchain-based user-centric records management system
Noh, S.-W., Park, Y., Sur, C., Shin, S.-U., & Rhee, K.-H. (2017) · International Journal of Control and Automation · doi:10.14257/ijca.2017.10.11.12 · Cited by 22
Chaudhary, D., Santhi, P., Durgarao, M. S. P., Padmavathi, A., Mehedi Hassan, M., & Fahad Alkhamees, B. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3434691 · Cited by 21
A Blockchain-Based Privacy Information Security Sharing Scheme in Industrial Internet of Things
Wang, Y., Che, T., Zhao, X., Zhou, T., Zhang, K., & Hu, X. (2022) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s22093426 · Cited by 20
Qualified eID Derivation Into a Distributed Ledger Based IdM System
Abraham, A., Theuermann, K., & Kirchengast, E. (2018) · 2018 17th IEEE International Conference On Trust, Security And Privacy In Computing And Communications/ 12th IEEE International Conference On Big Data Science And Engineering (TrustCom/BigDataSE) · doi:10.1109/trustcom/bigdatase.2018.00195 · Cited by 18
Mitigations on Sybil-Based Double-Spend Attacks in Bitcoin
Zhang, S., & Lee, J.-H. (2021) · IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine · doi:10.1109/mce.2020.2988031 · Cited by 16
MA, F. S. L. A. N. S. C. (2023) · doi:10.52131/pjhss.2023.1104.0675 · Cited by 16
Next - Location Prediction Using Federated Learning on a Blockchain
Halim, S. M., Khan, L., & Thuraisingham, B. (2020) · 2020 IEEE Second International Conference on Cognitive Machine Intelligence (CogMI) · doi:10.1109/cogmi50398.2020.00038 · Cited by 16
Decentralized autonomous imaging data processing using blockchain
Yang, L., Chen, G., Xu, R., Chen, S., & Chen, Y. (2019) · Multimodal Biomedical Imaging XIV · doi:10.1117/12.2513243 · Cited by 14
Tracking Ebola through cellphone, internet of things and Blockchain technology
Kangbai, J. B., v, P. B., Mandoh, S., Fofanah, A. B., George, A., Briama, A., Massaquoi, M., & McBrayer, J. L. (2018) · Current Research: Integrative Medicine · doi:10.4172/2529-797x.1000035 · Cited by 12
Hueber, O. (2018) · International Journal of Transitions and Innovation Systems · doi:10.1504/ijtis.2018.090770 · Cited by 12
Wang, H., Hunhevicz, J., & Hall, D. (2022) · Computing in Construction · doi:10.35490/ec3.2022.213 · Cited by 11
Blockchain -the Technology of Crypto Currencies
Bhatia, R., Kumar, P., Bansal, S., & Rawat, S. (2018) · 2018 International Conference on Advances in Computing and Communication Engineering (ICACCE) · doi:10.1109/icacce.2018.8441738 · Cited by 9
DECORAIT -- DECentralized Opt-in/out Registry for AI Training
Balan, K., Black, A., Jenni, S., Gilbert, A., Parsons, A., & Collomosse, J. (2023) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2309.14400 · Cited by 10
Blockchain-based fairness-enhanced federated learning scheme against label flipping attack
Jin, S., Li, Y., Chen, X., Li, R., & Shen, Z. (2023) · Journal of Information Security and Applications · doi:10.1016/j.jisa.2023.103580 · Cited by 7
IoT and Blockchain for Support for Smart Contracts Through TpM
Yamaguti, R., Ferreira, L. C. B. C., Lui Motta, L., Montali Assumpção, R., Branquinho, O. C., Iervolino, G., & Cardieri, P. (2025) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s25165001 · Cited by 4
“While this technology predates Bitcoin, it gained widespread attention only after its innovative application in the cryptocurrency introduced by [11].”
Application Model of Video Surveillance System Interworking Based on Blockchain
Li, J., Liu, X., Zhao, J., Liang, W., & Guo, L. (2021) · 2021 IEEE 4th Advanced Information Management, Communicates, Electronic and Automation Control Conference (IMCEC) · doi:10.1109/imcec51613.2021.9482064 · Cited by 3
Blockchain for IoT: A Critical Review of the State-of-the-Art, Challenges, and Future Prospects
Bodemer, O. (2023) · doi:10.36227/techrxiv.24155316 · Cited by 1
WWW.Serve: Interconnecting Global LLM Services through Decentralization
Wang, H., Xia, Z., Chen, Z., & Chen, B. (2026) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2603.20661
“With the advent of blockchain (Nakamoto, 2008), decentralized frameworks like Ethereum (Song et al., 2024) introduce trustless execution environments where tasks are handled transparently and verifiably through smart contracts.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Wright, C. S.
- Venue
- SSRN Electronic Journal
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2008
- ISSN
- 1556-5068 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4248175462
- Cited by
- 13,922
- References
- 1
- Type
- posted content
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
