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Cited by 26Child Development and Digital TechnologyImpact of Technology on AdolescentsPhysical Activity and Health

Using Wearable Cameras to Categorize the Type and Context of Screen-Based Behaviors Among Adolescents: Observational Study

Open access
Thomas, George, Bennie, Jason A, De Cocker, Katrien, Dwi Andriyani, Fitria, Booker, Bridget, Biddle, Stuart J H·2022·JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting
DOI 10.2196/28208PMC PMC8981006

Published version of a preprint

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Abstract

Background: Automated wearable cameras present a new opportunity to accurately assess human behavior. However, this technology is seldom used in the study of adolescent’s screen exposure, and the field is reliant on poor-quality self-report data. Objective: This study aimed to examine adolescents’ screen exposure by categorizing the type and context of behaviors using automated wearable cameras. Methods: Adolescents (mean age 15.4 years, SD 1.6 years; n=10) wore a camera for 3 school evenings and 1 weekend day. The camera captured an image every 10 seconds. Fieldwork was completed between February and March 2020, and data were analyzed in August 2020. Images were date and time stamped, and coded for screen type, content, and context. Results: Data representing 71,396 images were analyzed. Overall, 74.0% (52,842/71,396) of images contained screens and 16.8% (11,976/71,396) of images contained multiple screens. Most screen exposures involved television sets (25,950/71,396, 36.3%), smartphones (20,851/71,396, 29.2%), and laptop computers (15,309/71,396, 21.4%). The context of screen use differed by device type, although most screen exposures occurred at home (62,455/64,856, 96.3%) and with solitary engagement (54,430/64,856, 83.9%). The immediate after-school period saw high laptop computer use (4785/15,950, 30.0%), while smartphone use (2059/5320, 38.7%) peaked during prebedtime hours. Weekend screen exposure was high, with smartphone use (1070/1927, 55.5%) peaking in the early morning period and fluctuating throughout the day. Conclusions: There was evidence for high screen use during the after-school and weekend period, mostly through solitary engagement, and within the home environment. The findings may inform the basis of larger studies aimed at examining screen exposure in free-living conditions.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a small observational study of 10 Australian adolescents wearing automated cameras, 74.0% of 71,396 images contained screens, with television, smartphone, and laptop most common. Screen use was largely at home and solitary, with distinct temporal patterns by device and day type.

Key findings

  • Overall, 74.0% (52,842/71,396) of images contained screens and 16.8% (11,976/71,396) contained multiple screens. Most common devices were televisions (25,950/71,396, 36.3%), smartphones (20,851/71,396, 29.2%), and laptop computers (15,309/71,396, 21.4%); tablets were 3.8% (2720/71,396).
  • Content was mostly recreational (45,218/64,856, 69.7%), followed by educational (10,603/64,856, 16.3%) and social (7450/64,856, 11.5%). Television viewing was classified as recreational, 61.1% (9361/15,309) of laptop activities were educational, and 34.9% (7265/20,851) of smartphone exposure was social.
  • Context: 96.3% (62,455/64,856) of screen exposures occurred at home, including living room (37,364/64,856, 57.6%) and bedroom (19,473/64,856, 30.0%); 83.9% (54,430/64,856) involved no in-person social interaction.
  • Temporal patterns: weekday after-school laptop use peaked at 30.0% (4785/15,950), prebedtime smartphone use peaked at 38.7% (2059/5320), and weekend smartphone use peaked at 55.5% (1070/1927) from waking to 09:00. There was no significant weekday versus weekend difference in screen use (72.7% vs 73.1%, P=.23).

Methods

  • Observational study with 10 adolescents aged 13–17 years (mean 15.4, SD 1.6) recruited from a secondary school in Queensland, Australia; participants wore a camera for 3 school weekday evenings and 1 weekend day between February and March 2020.
  • A Brinno TLC120 chest-mounted automated camera captured an image every 10 seconds, with no audio or video; images were date- and time-stamped and manually coded for screen type, content, and context. A 10% subset was repeat coded, with average interrater reliability α=.81.
  • Descriptive analyses used IBM SPSS Statistics version 21.0; frequencies and percentages were calculated, weekday versus weekend screen use was compared with chi-squared tests, and temporal patterns were analyzed in 3-hour segments.

Limitations

  • The paper states the sample was small and demographically homogenous, limiting generalizability; only after-school and weekend periods were examined because school principals raised ethical concerns about camera wearing on school grounds.
  • The paper states the 10-second epoch may miss quick or sporadic smartphone checking, a Hawthorne effect is possible, coding relied on coder decisions, camera images cannot ascertain the function screens serve, and data processing/coding time limits large-scale use.
  • The paper states the study was insufficiently powered to use temporal patterns for testing differences; evident from the text, the descriptive design cannot establish causality or test associations.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.2196/28208

Cites

64 of 64 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 63 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Overall, 74.0% (52,842/71,396) of images contained screens.

    “Overall, 74.0% (52,842/71,396) of images contained screens”
    • Also stated in: § Device and Content Type · plain
      “In total, 52,842 (74.0%) images contained screens.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Weekend screen exposure was high.

    “Weekend screen exposure was high”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Most screen exposures occurred at home (62,455/64,856, 96.3%).

    “most screen exposures occurred at home (62,455/64,856, 96.3%)”
    • Also stated in: § Physical Setting · plain
      “nearly all screen exposures occurred in the home setting (62,455/64,856, 96.3%)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The context of screen use differed by device type.

    “The context of screen use differed by device type”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Smartphone use peaked during prebedtime hours (2059/5320, 38.7%).

    “smartphone use (2059/5320, 38.7%) peaked during prebedtime hours”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 43
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 45
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Most screen exposures involved television sets (25,950/71,396, 36.3%), smartphones (20,851/71,396, 29.2%), and laptop computers (15,309/71,396, 21.4%).

    “Most screen exposures involved television sets (25,950/71,396, 36.3%), smartphones (20,851/71,396, 29.2%), and laptop computers (15,309/71,396, 21.4%).”
    • Also stated in: § Device and Content Type · plain
      “The most common screens were televisions (25,950/71,396, 36.3%), smartphones (20,851/71,396, 29.2%), and laptop computers (15,309/71,396, 21.4%)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data

    A total of 71,396 images, derived from 30 school weekday evenings and 10 weekend days, were coded and included in the analysis.

    “A total of 71,396 images, derived from 30 school weekday evenings and 10 weekend days, were coded and included in the analysis.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Data representing 71,396 images were analyzed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Five girls and five boys participated, with an average age of 15.4 years (SD 1.6 years).

    “Five girls and five boys participated, with an average age of 15.4 years (SD 1.6 years).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The camera wear time averaged 230.5 minutes on a weekday evening and 508.1 minutes on a weekend day.

    “The camera wear time averaged 230.5 minutes on a weekday evening and 508.1 minutes on a weekend day.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Participants' parents who responded were mainly mothers (8/10, 80%), married (9/10, 90%), earning a total annual household income >AUD 78,000 (9/10, 90%), and had completed a university or tertiary qualification (8/10, 80%).

    “Participants’ parents who responded were mainly mothers (8/10, 80%), married (9/10, 90%), and earning a total annual household income >AUD 78,000 (9/10, 90%; 1 AUD = 0.73 USD), and had completed a university or tertiary qualification (8/10, 80%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The camera captured, on average, 1365 images per weekday evening and 3045 images per weekend day, equating to 227.5 minutes and 504.2 minutes of captured time, respectively.

    “The camera captured, on average, 1365 images per weekday evening and 3045 images per weekend day, equating to 227.5 minutes and 504.2 minutes of captured time, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Each image represented 10 seconds of time.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Ten participants (aged 13-17 years) were recruited from a secondary school in Queensland, Australia.

    “Ten participants (aged 13-17 years) were recruited from a secondary school in Queensland, Australia.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The main language spoken at home was English (9/10, 90%), with an average of 4 persons living in the household.

    “The main language spoken at home was English (9/10, 90%), with an average of 4 persons living in the household.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Fewer images contained tablets (2720/71,396, 3.8%), desktop computers (20/71,396, <1%), and wearable smartwatches (1/71,396, <1%).

    “while fewer images contained tablets (2720/71,396, 3.8%), desktop computers (20/71,396, <1%), and wearable smartwatches (1/71,396, <1%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Of this, 167.7 minutes were spent, on average, using screens on a weekday evening, and 371.3 minutes were spent on a weekend day.

    “Of this, 167.7 minutes were spent, on average, using screens on a weekday evening, and 371.3 minutes were spent on a weekend day.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Each image represented 10 seconds of time.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Written parental and adolescent consents were obtained for 10 adolescents (response rate 59%).

    “Written parental and adolescent consents were obtained for 10 adolescents (response rate 59%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The most prevalent combinations of screens were television-smartphone (7324/11,976, 61.2%), smartphone-laptop (2558/11,976, 21.4%), and laptop-television (985/11,976, 8.2%).

    “the most prevalent combinations of screens being (1) television-smartphone (7324/11,976, 61.2%), (2) smartphone-laptop (2558/11,976, 21.4%), and laptop-television (985/11,976, 8.2%)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Smartphone use peaked (1070/1927, 55.5%) during the time period from waking to 09:00, followed by fluctuating occurrences throughout the day.

    “Smartphone use peaked (1070/1927, 55.5%) during the time period from waking to 09:00, followed by fluctuating occurrences throughout the day.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Wearable camera images accurately represent adolescents' actual screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Playing action games was common during the afternoon hours, peaking between 12:00 and 15:00 (2016/7694, 26.2%), before declining throughout the evening.

    “playing action games was common during the afternoon hours, peaking between 12:00 and 15:00 (2016/7694, 26.2%), before declining throughout the evening.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Wearable camera images accurately represent adolescents' actual screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Smartphones were used in the living room (8719/20,851, 41.8%), bedroom (7932/20,851, 38.0%), and private transport (1564/20,851, 7.5%).

    “Smartphones were used in several areas, including the living room (8719/20,851, 41.8%) and bedroom (7932/20,851, 38.0%), and when in private transport (1564/20,851, 7.5%)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Television occurrences were fairly consistent across the day, but differed by content domain, with larger occurrences of watching action programs from 18:00 (1671/8569, 19.5%) through to sleep (612/2409, 25.4%).

    “Television occurrences were fairly consistent across the day, but differed by content domain, with larger occurrences of watching action programs from 18:00 (1671/8569, 19.5%) through to sleep (612/2409, 25.4%%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Wearable camera images accurately represent adolescents' actual screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    A wearable smartwatch was captured in 1 image, showing the home screen interface.

    “A wearable smartwatch was captured in 1 image, showing the home screen interface.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Tablet computers were uncommon during the day, comprising only 2.4% (158/6583) of occurrences in the morning and 2.9% (163/5620) between 15:00 and 18:00.

    “Tablet computers were uncommon during the day, comprising only 2.4% (158/6583) of occurrences in the morning and 2.9% (163/5620) between 15:00 and 18:00.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Wearable camera images accurately represent adolescents' actual screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The bedroom (1709/2720, 62.8%) and kitchen/dining room (848/2720, 31.2%) served as popular locations for tablet use.

    “the bedroom (1709/2720, 62.8%) and kitchen/dining room (848/2720, 31.2%) served as popular locations for tablet use”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    For all desktop computer images (n=20), specific content could not be determined owing to inadequate resolution.

    “For all desktop computer images (n=20), specific content could not be determined owing to inadequate resolution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The majority of multiscreening involved smartphones as the primary screen and televisions as the background screen (2285/11,976, 19.1%) used for watching television programs and gaming, respectively.

    “smartphones as the primary screen and televisions as the background screen (2285/11,976, 19.1%) used for watching television programs and gaming, respectively”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Some co-existing behaviors that occurred alongside screen-based behaviors included writing using a pen and paper (3873/64,856, 6.0%), eating a snack (1755/64,856, 2.7%), or eating a meal (1454/64,856, 2.2%), but this varied according to screen domain.

    “Some co-existing behaviors that occurred alongside screen-based behaviors included writing using a pen and paper (3873/64,856, 6.0%), eating a snack (1755/64,856, 2.7%), or eating a meal (1454/64,856, 2.2%), but this varied according to screen domain.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Wearable camera images accurately represent adolescents' actual screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Concerning laptop computer use, 38.7% (691/1785) of occurrences were captured during the prebedtime period, doubling that during the previous time period between 18:00 and 21:00 hours.

    “Concerning laptop computer use, 38.7% (691/1785) of occurrences were captured during the prebedtime period, doubling that during the previous time period between 18:00 and 21:00 hours.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Wearable camera images accurately represent adolescents' actual screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Tablets were commonly used for recreational (1627/2720, 59.8%) and educational (1014/2720, 37.3%) purposes.

    “Tablets were commonly used for recreational (1627/2720, 59.8%) and educational (1014/2720, 37.3%) purposes”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Laptop (2430/15,309, 15.9%) and tablet (800/2720, 29.4%) computers were commonly used when writing with a pen and paper.

    “Laptop (2430/15,309, 15.9%) and tablet (800/2720, 29.4%) computers were commonly used when writing with a pen and paper”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Wearable camera images accurately represent adolescents' actual screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Playing action games comprised 21.0% (3440/16,359) of occurrences in the middle evening segment and continued to increase into the prebedtime period (≥21:00; 1738/5314, 32.7%).

    “This comprised mostly of playing action games (3440/16,359, 21.0%), which continued to increase into the prebedtime period (≥21:00; 1738/5314, 32.7%)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Wearable camera images accurately represent adolescents' actual screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    During the immediate after-school period (≤18:00), occurrences of laptop computers peaked (4785/15,950, 30.0%) and then consistently decreased throughout the evening.

    “During the immediate after-school period (≤18:00), occurrences of laptop computers (4785/15,950, 30.0%) peaked and then consistently decreased throughout the evening.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Wearable camera images accurately represent adolescents' actual screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Participants in this study spent the majority of their time at home and engaged in most of their screen time at home.

    “Participants in this study spent the majority of their time at home and, as such, engaged in most of their screen time at home.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Wearable camera images accurately represent adolescents' actual screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Television viewing reduced rapidly in the prebedtime hours, comprising just 2.4% of all screen occurrences.

    “However, the same behavior reduced rapidly in the prebedtime hours, comprising just 2.4% of all screen occurrences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Wearable camera images accurately represent adolescents' actual screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Among a small sample of adolescents, there were high amounts of screen use, most of which occurred in the home, with little social interaction.

    “Among a small sample of adolescents, we showed high amounts of screen use, most of which occurred in the home, with little social interaction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Wearable camera images accurately represent adolescents' actual screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Traditional self-reported measures of screen use focus primarily on televisions, computers, and video games, and have largely ignored smartphones and tablets.

    “traditional self-reported measures of screen use, such as questionnaires and time use diaries, focus primarily on televisions, computers, and video games, and have largely ignored smartphones and tablets”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [13] Simon, L, 2019, European Journal of Human Movement

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [14] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Self-reported sedentary behavior lacks measurement precision due to recall difficulties and is prone to numerous biases (eg, social desirability).

    “such reporting of sedentary behavior lacks measurement precision due to recall difficulties and is prone to numerous biases (eg, social desirability) [12]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Higher levels of adolescent screen use are associated with depression.

    “and depression [4,5]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [4] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [5] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Higher levels of adolescent screen use are associated with low academic achievement.

    “as well as low academic achievement [6]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Higher levels of adolescent screen use are associated with increased adiposity.

    “higher levels of adolescent screen use are associated with detrimental health outcomes, such as increased adiposity [2,3]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [2] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [3] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    There was evidence for high screen use during the after-school and weekend period, mostly through solitary engagement, and within the home environment.

    “There was evidence for high screen use during the after-school and weekend period, mostly through solitary engagement, and within the home environment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Each image represented 10 seconds of time.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Smith et al demonstrated wearable cameras to be a feasible and acceptable method of measuring evening screen exposure among New Zealand adolescents.

    “Smith et al recently demonstrated wearable cameras to be a feasible and acceptable method of measuring evening screen exposure among New Zealand adolescents [39]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Adolescents spend over 70% of their after-school time sitting.

    “adolescents spend over 70% of their after-school time sitting [40]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [40] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants were asked to wear an automated camera on 4 randomly allocated days (using an online random number generator), including 3 school weekday evenings and 1 weekend day.

    “Participants were asked to wear an automated camera (Brinno TLC120) on 4 randomly allocated days (using an online random number generator), including 3 school weekday evenings (all waking hours after returning home from school) and 1 weekend day (all waking hours).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Smith et al data were derived largely from nonschool days, owing to examination during study breaks or holidays, and thus the findings may not reflect adolescents' typical screen use.

    “However, data were derived largely from nonschool days, owing to examination during study breaks or holidays, and thus, the findings may not reflect adolescents’ typical screen use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Written informed parental and adolescent consents were obtained before data collection.

    “Written informed parental and adolescent consents were obtained before data collection.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Time use diaries can be burdensome for participants, possibly causing involuntary changes in activity behavior throughout the day.

    “time use diaries can also be burdensome for participants, possibly causing involuntary changes in activity behavior throughout the day [23]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    A subset of images (10%) was repeat coded by a second researcher, and interrater reliability was tested using the Krippendorf (α) statistic to determine consistency between coders for all coding categories.

    “A subset of images (10%) was repeat coded by a second researcher, and interrater reliability was tested using the Krippendorf (α) statistic to determine consistency between coders for all coding categories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In Smith et al, 5% of images contained multiple screens.

    “while 5% contained multiple screens”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The remaining images were securely stored using a password-protected storage server only accessible to the image coders.

    “the remaining images were securely stored using a password-protected storage server only accessible to the image coders.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Southern Queensland Human Research Ethics Committee (H19REA248).

    “Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Southern Queensland Human Research Ethics Committee (H19REA248).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Smith et al collected 41,734 images across 39 evenings.

    “This study collected 41,734 images across 39 evenings”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Newer digital media use might be replacing television viewing.

    “which might be replacing television viewing [16]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Images for each participant were manually coded by the first author in a spreadsheet, based on a pre-established codebook for wearable camera research on children's screen use.

    “Images for each participant were manually coded by the first author in a spreadsheet, based on a pre-established codebook for wearable camera research on children’s screen use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A large proportion of after-school sitting time is spent using screens.

    “with a large proportion spent using screens [41,42]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [41] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [42] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants and parents were offered an opportunity to review and delete images before the first author viewed them.

    “Participants and parents were offered an opportunity to review and delete images before the first author viewed them.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Smith et al, almost half of the images contained screens, most commonly those of smartphones.

    “showing that almost half of the images contained screens, most commonly those of smartphones”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If television programs are watched on television sets as well as other devices, we may be estimating behaviors incorrectly, depending on the nature of the question asked.

    “If television programs are watched on television sets, as well as other devices, we may be estimating behaviors incorrectly, depending on the nature of the question asked.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Use of newer digital media is increasing, with some displacement of traditional forms of media for adolescents.

    “This finding supports the perception that use of newer digital media is increasing, with some displacement of traditional forms of media for adolescents [16].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is possible that there may be conflating of the assessment of behaviors and devices.

    “Hence, it is possible that there may be conflating of the assessment of behaviors and devices.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There has been a decline in watching programs on conventional television sets, despite an increase in consuming television content on the internet.

    “reports show a decline in watching programs on conventional television sets, despite an increase in consuming television content on the internet [47].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [47] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The portability of smartphones allows adolescents to use these devices ubiquitously, almost anywhere in free-living conditions.

    “the portability of smartphones allows adolescents to use these devices ubiquitously [49]; almost anywhere in free-living conditions as reported here.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Despite a lack of in-person social interactions observed in this study, it is highly likely that adolescents engaged in numerous online interactions whilst using screens, for example, through online communication or playing interactive video games.

    “despite a lack of in-person social interactions observed in this study, it is highly likely that adolescents engaged in numerous online interactions whilst using screens, for example, through online communication or playing interactive video games.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Wearable cameras may provide a new approach to collect more accurate data on screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions, and with some volume.

    “we showed that wearable cameras may provide a new approach to collect more accurate data on screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions, and with some volume.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Together, these findings may cause a rise in public health concern.

    “Together, these findings may cause a rise in public health concern”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    A high agreement between coders was reported, similar to a previous study using wearable cameras.

    “A high agreement between coders was reported, similar to a previous study using wearable cameras [39].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Prebedtime screen use is associated with poor sleep markers (eg, inadequate sleep quantity, poor sleep quality, and excessive daytime sleepiness).

    “given the evidence for associations between prebedtime screen use and a number of poor sleep markers (eg, inadequate sleep quantity, poor sleep quality, and excessive daytime sleepiness) [62].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [62] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The annotation of wearable camera images was based on decisions made by the coders.

    “Fourth, the annotation of wearable camera images was based on decisions made by the coders.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Smartphones may have offered an opportunity to socialize with friends whilst watching television shows.

    “or offered an opportunity to socialize with friends whilst watching television shows [48].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The reduction in television viewing in prebedtime hours may be due to changes in patterns of media consumption among young people.

    “This may be due to the changes in patterns of media consumption among young people.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Australian guidelines for physical activity and sedentary behavior recommend no more than two hours of recreational screen use daily for this age group.

    “Australian guidelines for physical activity and sedentary behavior recommend no more than two hours of recreational screen use daily for this age group [63].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [63] Australian 24-hour movement guidelines for children (5 to 12 years) and young people (13 to 17 years): an integration of physical activity, sedentary behaviour, and sleepCommonwealth of Australia20192022-02-24https://tinyurl.com/2p8n6nkf

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The Hawthorne effect may have implications for the validity of this study.

    “This may have implications for the validity of this study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The study was able to both enhance traditional self-report and provide context and temporal specificity surrounding screen-based behaviors in free-living settings.

    “As such, we were able to both enhance traditional self-report and provide context and temporal specificity surrounding screen-based behaviors in free-living settings.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The sample size was small and the demographic characteristics of the sample were relatively homogenous.

    “Other limitations include a small sample size and the relatively homogenous demographic characteristics of the sample.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Although gaming was used concurrently with smartphones, the smartphone was predominantly used in the background and therefore was less likely to interfere with adolescents' cognitive demands of gaming.

    “One explanation for our findings is that although gaming was used concurrently with smartphones, the latter was predominantly used in the background and therefore was less likely to interfere with adolescents’ cognitive demands of gaming.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    These findings support the hypothesis of time displacement for social interaction, that is, more adolescents spending time on digital media and less time on face-to-face social interaction.

    “Such findings support the hypothesis of time displacement for social interaction, that is, more adolescents spending time on digital media and less time on face-to-face social interaction [54].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Reducing access to screen-based devices in the bedroom will not guarantee a reduction in sedentary behavior as other sedentary pursuits may be adopted as a substitute.

    “although this will not guarantee a reduction in sedentary behavior as other sedentary pursuits may be adopted as a substitute.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Data processing and coding times are limiting factors and may be unsuitable for use in large-scale studies, unless an automatic recognition algorithm is developed to classify different aspects of human behavior.

    “In addition to coding issues, the data processing and coding times are limiting factors and may be unsuitable for use in large-scale studies, unless an automatic recognition algorithm is developed to classify different aspects of human behavior [26].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Smartphones may have been used to temper impatience or boredom whilst waiting for a game to load.

    “Other possible explanations are that smartphones were used to temper impatience or boredom whilst waiting for a game to load [17,48]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [17] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [48] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Approximately 80% of boys and 90% of girls used a cell phone in the hour before going to sleep, based on a large population-based survey of adolescents in Norway (n=9846).

    “using data from a large population-based survey of adolescents in Norway (n=9846), Hysing et al showed that approximately 80% of boys and 90% of girls used a cell phone in the hour before going to sleep [61].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [61] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    This may encourage prolonged recreational use of screens in the bedroom, often whilst sitting or lying down.

    “This might encourage prolonged recreational use of screens in this location, often whilst sitting or lying down [48].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    There is the possibility of the Hawthorne effect, whereby participants modified their behavior in response to wearing an automated wearable camera.

    “Third, there is the possibility of the Hawthorne effect, whereby participants modified their behavior in response to wearing an automated wearable camera.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Reducing access to screen-based devices in the bedroom has been identified as a facilitator to reduce screen use.

    “reducing access to screen-based devices in the bedroom has been identified as a facilitator to reduce screen use [53]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Adolescents may feel they have greater privacy and fewer interruptions from family members in the bedroom.

    “It is possible that adolescents feel they have greater privacy and have fewer interruptions from family members in this setting.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
79 of 79

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Each image represented 10 seconds of time.

    “Captured time (minutes) was the number of images divided by 6 (assuming each image represented 10 seconds).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most questionnaires assess each screen use behavior independently and then sum these individual behaviors to calculate total screen time.

    “At present, most questionnaires assess each screen use behavior independently and then sum these individual behaviors to calculate total screen time.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The context of adolescents’ screen behaviors is often overlooked.

    “When these aspects have been measured, the context of these behaviors is often overlooked, specifically, “when,” “where,” and “with whom” adolescents are using screens.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Wearable camera images accurately represent adolescents' actual screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions.

    “A strength of this study was the measurement of adolescents’ screen exposure, which was significantly enhanced through the use of wearable cameras.”
    “we showed that wearable cameras may provide a new approach to collect more accurate data on screen-based behaviors in free-living conditions, and with some volume.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The coders' annotations of screen type and context accurately reflect the content of the wearable camera images.

    “Fourth, the annotation of wearable camera images was based on decisions made by the coders.”
    “This limitation may have been offset by conducting interrater reliability tests, showing an almost perfect agreement between coders [44].”
5 of 5

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Smartphone action-animation percentage uses the wrong denominator

    Minor

    Table 2 says specific-content percentages are based on the device image set. The 980 action-animation images are 4.7% of 20,851 smartphone images, not 9.4%.

    Reported 9.4 · recomputed 4.700014

  • Two different totals are given for the image set

    Minor

    The paper consistently reports 71,396 analyzed images, but the Table 2 note and later results use 71,936 as the total image set.

2 of 2

Cites

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Cited by

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Related

Authors
Thomas, G., Bennie, J. A., De Cocker, K., Dwi Andriyani, F., Booker, B., & Biddle, S. J. H.
Affiliations
  • University of Southern Queensland (AU)
  • Australian Catholic University (AU)
Corresponding author
Thomas, George
ORCID
Venue
JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting
Publisher
JMIR Publications Inc.
Published
2022-03-21
Volume
5
Issue
1
Pages
e28208
ISSN
2561-6722 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.2196/28208
PMC
PMC8981006
OpenAlex
W4210526205
Semantic Scholar
df0d20aaf9c21e2d4dc4d3119b4e87f61781425c
Cited by
26
References
64
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 5
FWCI
10.79
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • Australian Government
  • Australian Catholic University
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Physical Activity and Health
Keywords
screen exposure, adolescents, wearable cameras, smartphone use, television viewing

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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