Epigenetics of early-life lead exposure and effects on brain development
Open accessAbstract
The epigenetic machinery plays a pivotal role in the control of many of the body's key cellular functions. It modulates an array of pliable mechanisms that are readily and durably modified by intracellular or extracellular factors. In the fast-moving field of neuroepigenetics, it is emerging that faulty epigenetic gene regulation can have dramatic consequences on the developing CNS that can last a lifetime and perhaps even affect future generations. Mounting evidence suggests that environmental factors can impact the developing brain through these epigenetic mechanisms and this report reviews and examines the epigenetic effects of one of the most common neurotoxic pollutants of our environment, which is believed to have no safe level of exposure during human development: lead.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior
Weaver, I. C. G., Cervoni, N., Champagne, F. A., D'Alessio, A. C., Sharma, S., Seckl, J. R., Dymov, S., Szyf, M., & Meaney, M. J. (2004) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1276 · Cited by 6,177 · see citing works
Regulation of chromatin by histone modifications
Bannister, A. J., & Kouzarides, T. (2011) · Cell Research · doi:10.1038/cr.2011.22 · Cited by 6,012 · see citing works
Conversion of 5-Methylcytosine to 5-Hydroxymethylcytosine in Mammalian DNA by MLL Partner TET1
Tahiliani, M., Koh, K. P., Shen, Y., Pastor, W. A., Bandukwala, H., Brudno, Y., Agarwal, S., Iyer, L. M., Liu, D. R., Aravind, L., et al. (2009) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1170116 · Cited by 5,836 · see citing works
DNA methylation and its basic function
Moore, L. D., Le, T., & Fan, G. (2013) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2012.112 · Cited by 4,906 · see citing works
Non-coding RNAs in human disease
Esteller, M. (2011) · Nature Reviews Genetics · doi:10.1038/nrg3074 · Cited by 4,825 · see citing works
Targeted mutation of the DNA methyltransferase gene results in embryonic lethality
Li, E., Bestor, T. H., & Jaenisch, R. (1992) · Cell · doi:10.1016/0092-8674(92)90611-f · Cited by 3,984 · see citing works
The fetal and infant origins of adult disease.
Barker, D. J. (1990) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.301.6761.1111 · Cited by 2,768 · see citing works
Lanphear, B. P., Hornung, R., Khoury, J., Yolton, K., Baghurst, P., Bellinger, D. C., Canfield, R. L., Dietrich, K. N., Bornschein, R., Greene, T., et al. (2005) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.7688 · Cited by 2,205 · see citing works
Intellectual Impairment in Children with Blood Lead Concentrations below 10 μg per Deciliter
Canfield, R. L., Henderson, C. R., Cory-Slechta, D. A., Cox, C., Jusko, T. A., & Lanphear, B. P. (2003) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa022848 · Cited by 2,081 · see citing works
In vitro differentiation of transplantable neural precursors from human embryonic stem cells
Zhang, S., Wernig, M., Duncan, I. D., Brüstle, O., & Thomson, J. A. (2001) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/nbt1201-1129 · Cited by 1,916 · see citing works
Epigenetic regulation in psychiatric disorders
Tsankova, N., Renthal, W., Kumar, A., & Nestler, E. J. (2007) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2132 · Cited by 1,400 · see citing works
Induction of human neuronal cells by defined transcription factors
Pang, Z. P., Yang, N., Vierbuchen, T., Ostermeier, A., Fuentes, D., Yang, T. Q., Citri, A., Sebastiano, V., Marro, S. G., Südhof, T. C., et al. (2011) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature10202 · Cited by 1,249 · see citing works
Neurotoxic Effects and Biomarkers of Lead Exposure: A Review
Sanders, T., Liu, Y., Buchner, V., & Tchounwou, P. B. (2009) · Reviews on Environmental Health · doi:10.1515/reveh.2009.24.1.15 · Cited by 1,084 · see citing works
Synergistic Signaling in Fetal Brain by STAT3-Smad1 Complex Bridged by p300
Nakashima, K., Yanagisawa, M., Arakawa, H., Kimura, N., Hisatsune, T., Kawabata, M., Miyazono, K., & Taga, T. (1999) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.284.5413.479 · Cited by 867 · see citing works
5-hmC–mediated epigenetic dynamics during postnatal neurodevelopment and aging
Szulwach, K. E., Li, X., Li, Y., Song, C., Wu, H., Dai, Q., Irier, H. A., Upadhyay, A. K., Gearing, M., Levey, A. I., et al. (2011) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.2959 · Cited by 818 · see citing works
Gender differences in the disposition and toxicity of metals
Vahter, M., Åkesson, A., Lidén, C., Ceccatelli, S., & Berglund, M. (2006) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2006.08.003 · Cited by 740 · see citing works
Reframing sexual differentiation of the brain
McCarthy, M. M., & Arnold, A. P. (2011) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.2834 · Cited by 728 · see citing works
Hsieh, J., Nakashima, K., Kuwabara, T., Mejia, E., & Gage, F. H. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0407643101 · Cited by 724 · see citing works
Exposures to environmental toxicants and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in U.S. children
Braun, J. M., Kahn, R. S., Froehlich, T., Auinger, P., & Lanphear, B. P. (2006) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.9478 · Cited by 573 · see citing works
Histone Methylation Regulates Memory Formation
Gupta, S., Kim, S. Y., Artis, S., Molfese, D. L., Schumacher, A., Sweatt, J. D., Paylor, R. E., & Lubin, F. D. (2010) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3732-09.2010 · Cited by 562 · see citing works
Environmental chemical exposures and human epigenetics
Hou, L., Zhang, X., Wang, D., & Baccarelli, A. (2011) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyr154 · Cited by 489 · see citing works
Wu, J., Basha, R. M., Brock, B., Cox, D. P., Cardozo‐Pelaez, F., McPherson, C. A., Harry, J., Rice, D. C., Maloney, B., Chen, D., et al. (2008) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4405-07.2008 · Cited by 473 · see citing works
Wright, J. P., Dietrich, K. N., Ris, M. D., Hornung, R. W., Wessel, S. D., Lanphear, B. P., Ho, M., & Rae, M. N. (2008) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050101 · Cited by 467 · see citing works
Decreased Brain Volume in Adults with Childhood Lead Exposure
Cecil, K. M., Brubaker, C. J., Adler, C. M., Dietrich, K. N., Altaye, M., Egelhoff, J. C., Wessel, S., Elangovan, I., Hornung, R., Jarvis, K., et al. (2008) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050112 · Cited by 458 · see citing works
Direct conversion of mouse fibroblasts to self-renewing, tripotent neural precursor cells
Lujan, E., Chanda, S., Ahlenius, H., Südhof, T. C., & Wernig, M. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1121003109 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
New and evolving concepts in the neurotoxicology of lead☆
White, L. D., Cory‐Slechta, D. A., Gilbert, M. E., Tiffany‐Castiglioni, E., Zawia, N. H., Virgolini, M. B., Rossi‐George, A., Lasley, S. M., Qian, Y., & Basha, R. M. (2007) · Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.taap.2007.08.001 · Cited by 404 · see citing works
MicroRNAs in neuronal function and dysfunction
Im, H.-I., & Kenny, P. J. (2012) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2012.01.004 · Cited by 399 · see citing works
Epigenetic control of neural precursor cell fate during development
Hirabayashi, Y., & Gotoh, Y. (2010) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2810 · Cited by 376 · see citing works
Basha, R. M., Wei, W., Bakheet, S. A., Benitez, N. B., Siddiqi, H. K., Ge, Y., Lahiri, D. K., & Zawia, N. H. (2005) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4335-04.2005 · Cited by 353 · see citing works
Environmental epigenetics in metal exposure
Martínez‐Zamudio, R. I., & Ha, H. C. (2011) · Epigenetics · doi:10.4161/epi.6.7.16250 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
Neuropsychological function in children with blood lead levels <10μg/dL
Surkan, P. J., Zhang, A., Trachtenberg, F. L., DANIEL, D., McKinlay, S. M., & Bellinger, D. C. (2007) · NeuroToxicology · doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2007.07.007 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Teratogen update: Lead and pregnancy
Bellinger, D. C. (2005) · Birth Defects Research Part A Clinical and Molecular Teratology · doi:10.1002/bdra.20127 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Transplacental transport of lead.
Goyer, R. A. (1990) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.9089101 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance: More questions than answersPreprint
Daxinger, L., & Whitelaw, E. (2010) · Genome Research · doi:10.1101/gr.106138.110 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Histone Deacetylase Activity Is Necessary for Oligodendrocyte Lineage Progression
Marin‐Husstege, M., Muggironi, M., Liu, A., & Casaccia-Bonnefil, P. (2002) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.22-23-10333.2002 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Bellinger, D. C. (2004) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.113.s3.1016 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
Influence of Prenatal Lead Exposure on Genomic Methylation of Cord Blood DNA
Pilsner, J. R., Hu, H., Ettinger, A., Sánchez, B. N., Wright, R. O., Cantonwine, D., Lazarus, A., Lamadrid-Figueroa, H., Mercado-García, A., Téllez-Rojo, M. M., et al. (2009) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.0800497 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Epigenetic Regulation of Neural Gene Expression and Neuronal Function
Feng, J., Fouse, S. D., & Fan, G. (2007) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1203/pdr.0b013e3180457635 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Genomic Imprinting: A Mammalian Epigenetic Discovery Model
Barlow, D. P. (2011) · Annual Review of Genetics · doi:10.1146/annurev-genet-110410-132459 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Biomarkers of Lead Exposure and DNA Methylation within Retrotransposons
Wright, R. O., Schwartz, J., Wright, R. J., Bollati, V., Tarantini, L., Park, S. K., Hu, H., Sparrow, D., Vokonas, P., & Baccarelli, A. (2010) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.0901429 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Molecular Neurobiology of Lead (Pb2+): Effects on Synaptic Function
Neal, A. P., & Guilarte, T. R. (2010) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-010-8146-0 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Nigg, J. T., Nikolas, M. A., Knottnerus, G. M., CAVANAGH, K. T., & Friderici, K. H. (2009) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02135.x · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Epigenetic targets of some toxicologically relevant metals: a review of the literature
Cheng, T., Choudhuri, S., & Muldoon‐Jacobs, K. (2012) · Journal of Applied Toxicology · doi:10.1002/jat.2717 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Co-exposure to environmental lead and manganese affects the intelligence of school-aged children
Kim, Y., Kim, B.-N., Hong, Y., Shin, M., Yoo, H., Kim, J.-W., Bhang, S., & Cho, S.-C. (2009) · NeuroToxicology · doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2009.03.012 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Waly, M. I., Olteanu, H., Banerjee, R. V., Choi, S.-W., Mason, J. B., Parker, B. S., Sukumar, S. V., Shim, S., Sharma, A. K., Benzecry, J., et al. (2004) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4001476 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Hanna, C. W., Bloom, M. S., Robinson, W. P., Kim, D., Parsons, P. J., vom Saal, F. S., Taylor, J. A., Steuerwald, A. J., & Fujimoto, V. Y. (2012) · Human Reproduction · doi:10.1093/humrep/des038 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Bihaqi, S. W., Huang, H., Wu, J., & Zawia, N. H. (2011) · Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-2011-111013 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Hypothesis: Environmental regulation of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine by oxidative stress
Chia, N., Wang, L., Lu, X., Senut, M., Brenner, C. A., & Ruden, D. M. (2011) · Epigenetics · doi:10.4161/epi.6.7.16461 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Self-citationLoss of activity-induced phosphorylation of MeCP2 enhances synaptogenesis, LTP and spatial memory
Li, H., Zhong, X., Chau, K. F., Williams, E. C., & Chang, Q. (2011) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.2866 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Pluripotent stem cells in neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental diseases
Marchetto, M. C. N., Winner, B., & Gage, F. H. (2010) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddq159 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Verina, T., Rohde, C. A., & Guilarte, T. R. (2007) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.12.040 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Jedrychowski, W. A., Perera, F. P., Jankowski, J. J., Mrozek‐Budzyn, D., Mróz, E., Flak, E., Edwards, S., Skarupa, A., & Lisowska‐Miszczyk, I. (2009) · Early Human Development · doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2009.04.006 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Brubaker, C. J., Schmithorst, V. J., Haynes, E. N., Dietrich, K. N., Egelhoff, J. C., Lindquist, D. M., Lanphear, B. P., & Cecil, K. M. (2009) · NeuroToxicology · doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2009.07.007 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
The Protean Toxicities of Lead: New Chapters in a Familiar Story
Bellinger, D. C. (2011) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph8072593 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Leasure, J. L., Giddabasappa, A., Chaney, S., Johnson, J. E., Pothakos, K., Lau, Y., & Fox, D. A. (2007) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.10862 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Crosstalk among Epigenetic Pathways Regulates Neurogenesis
Jobe, E. M., McQuate, A. L., & Zhao, X. (2012) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2012.00059 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Yuan, W., Holland, S. K., Cecil, K. M., Dietrich, K. N., Wessel, S. D., Altaye, M., Hornung, R., Ris, M. D., Egelhoff, J. C., & Lanphear, B. P. (2006) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2006-0467 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Stansfield, K. H., Pilsner, J. R., Lu, Q., Wright, R. O., & Guilarte, T. R. (2012) · Toxicological Sciences · doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfs090 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Zimmer, B., Kuegler, P. B., Baudis, B., Genewsky, A. J., Tanavde, V., Koh, W. L. C., Tan, B., Waldmann, T., Kadereit, S., & Leist, M. (2010) · Cell Death and Differentiation · doi:10.1038/cdd.2010.109 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Neurotoxicity in young adults 20 years after childhood exposure to lead: the Bunker Hill experience.
Stokes, L., Letz, R., Gerr, F. E., et al. (1998) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oem.55.8.507 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Epigenetic mechanisms in metal toxicity
Fragou, D., Fragou, A., Kouidou, S., Njau, S. N., & Kovatsi, L. (2011) · Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods · doi:10.3109/15376516.2011.557878 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Guilarte, T. R., Opler, M. G., & Pletnikov, M. V. (2011) · NeuroToxicology · doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2011.11.008 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Dosunmu, R., Alashwal, H., & Zawia, N. H. (2012) · Mechanisms of Ageing and Development · doi:10.1016/j.mad.2012.05.003 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Bellinger, D. C. (2004) · PubMed · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Yoshikazu, A. R. A. I., Ohgane, J., Yagi, S., Ito, R., Iwasaki, Y., Saito, K., Akutsu, K., Takatori, S., Ishii, R., Hayashi, R., et al. (2011) · Journal of Reproduction and Development · doi:10.1262/jrd.11-034a · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Chromosome silencing mechanisms in X-chromosome inactivation: unknown unknowns
Brockdorff, N. (2011) · Development · doi:10.1242/dev.065276 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Prenatal Lead Levels, Plasma Amyloid β Levels, and Gene Expression in Young Adulthood
Mazumdar, M., Xia, W., Hofmann, O., Gregas, M. C., Sui, S. H., Hide, W., Yang, T., Needleman, H. L., & Bellinger, D. C. (2012) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.1104474 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
<i>p16</i>promoter methylation in Pb<sup>2+</sup>-exposed individuals
Kovatsi, L., Georgiou, E., Ioannou, A., Haitoglou, C., Tzimagiorgis, G., Tsoukali, H., & Kouidou, S. (2010) · Clinical Toxicology · doi:10.3109/15563650903567091 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Cory‐Slechta, D. A., Stern, S., Weston, D., Allen, J. L., & Liu, S. M. (2010) · Toxicological Sciences · doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfq221 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Schneider, J. S., Anderson, D. W., Talsania, K., Mettil, W., & Vadigepalli, R. (2012) · Toxicological Sciences · doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfs189 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Lead Dysregulates Serine/Threonine Protein Phosphatases in Human Neurons
Rahman, A., Brew, B. J., & Guillemin, G. J. (2010) · Neurochemical Research · doi:10.1007/s11064-010-0300-6 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Genetic Variation in the Epigenetic Machinery and Mental Health
Murgatroyd, C., & Spengler, D. (2012) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-012-0255-1 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Altmann, L., Gutowski, M., & Wiegand, H. (1994) · Developmental Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0165-3806(94)90067-1 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Sex-based differences in gene expression in hippocampus following postnatal lead exposure
Schneider, J. S., Anderson, D. W., Sonnenahalli, H., & Vadigepalli, R. (2011) · Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.taap.2011.08.008 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Exposure of women in general populations to lead via food and air in East and Southeast Asia
Ikeda, M., Zhang, Z.-W., Shimbo, S., Watanabe, T., Nakatsuka, H., Moon, C., Matsuda‐Inoguchi, N., & Higashikawa, K. (2000) · American Journal of Industrial Medicine · doi:10.1002/1097-0274(200009)38:3 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
He, T., Hirsch, H. V. B., Ruden, D. M., et al. (2009) · NeuroToxicology · doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2009.08.007 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citationProtective effect of 17-β-estradiol in human neurocellular models of lead exposure
Chetty, C. S., Vemuri, M. C., Reddy, G. R., & Challa, S. (2006) · NeuroToxicology · doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2006.03.012 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Panel Advises Tougher Limits on Lead Exposure
Kuehn, B. M. (2012) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2012.50 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Senut, M.-C., Sen, A., Cingolani, P., Shaik, A., Land, S. J., & Ruden, D. M. (2014) · Toxicological Sciences · doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfu028 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Self-citationPrenatal ambient air pollution exposure and SOD2 promoter methylation in maternal and cord blood
Zhou, G., He, T., Huang, H., Feng, F., Liu, X., Li, Z., Zhang, Y., & Ba, Y. (2019) · Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.06.039 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Montel Hayes, R., Mason, C. E., & Miller, J. J. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1671122 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Senut, M.-C., Cingolani, P., Sen, A., Kruger, A., Shaik, A., Hirsch, H., Suhr, S. T., & Ruden, D.
- Affiliations
- Wayne State University (US)
- Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, CS Mott Center for Human Health & Development & Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI48201, USA
- University at Albany, State University of New York (US)
- Michigan State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ruden, Douglas
- Venue
- Epigenomics
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2012-12
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 665-674
- ISSN
- 1750-1911 (ISSN-L)
- 1750-192X
- PMC
- PMC3555228
- OpenAlex
- W2148506810
- Cited by
- 151
- References
- 78
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 10
- FWCI
- 0.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Epigenomics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- H Hirsch and D Ruden. (ES012933)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Heavy Metal Exposure and Toxicity
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Epigenetics and DNA Methylation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Birth, Development, and Health
- Keywords
- lead exposure, epigenetics, neuroepigenetics, brain development, neurotoxicity, environmental pollutants, gene expression regulation, transgenerational effects, developmental neurotoxicity
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Child, Environmental Exposure, Humans, Lead Poisoning, Nervous System, Childhood, Epigenesis, Genetic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review