Traumatic stress and human DNA methylation: A critical review
Abstract
Animal studies have identified persistent and functional effects of traumatic stress on the epigenome. This review discusses the clinical evidence for trauma-induced changes in DNA methylation across the life span in humans. Studies are reviewed based on reports of trauma exposure during the prenatal period (13 studies), early life (20 studies), and adulthood (ten studies). Even though it is apparent that traumatic stress influences the human epigenome, there are significant drawbacks in the existing human literature. These include a lack of longitudinal studies, methodological heterogeneity, selection of tissue type, and the influence of developmental stage and trauma type on methylation outcomes. These issues are discussed in order to present a way in which future studies can gain more insight into the functional relevance of trauma-related DNA methylation changes. Epigenetic studies investigating the detrimental effects of traumatic stress have great potential for an improved detection and treatment of trauma-related psychiatric disorders.
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Stress has consistently been associated with differential DNA methylation.
“One factor which has consistently been associated with differential DNAm is stress [2,3].”
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DNA methylation: conducting the orchestra from exposure to phenotype?
Leenen, F. A. D., Muller, C. P., & Turner, J. D. (2016) · Clinical Epigenetics · doi:10.1186/s13148-016-0256-8 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effects of early life adversity on the immune system
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Self-citationThe epigenetic impacts of social stress: how does social adversity become biologically embedded?
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Self-citationEpigenetic Research in Neuropsychiatric Disorders: the “Tissue Issue”
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Self-citationWatkeys, O. J., Kremerskothen, K., Quidé, Y., Fullerton, J. M., & Green, M. J. (2018) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.08.017 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Childhood adversity and DNA methylation in two population-based cohorts
Houtepen, L. C., Hardy, R., Maddock, J., Kuh, D. J., Anderson, E. L., Relton, C. L., Suderman, M. J., & Howe, L. D. (2018) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-018-0307-3 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
An epigenome-wide DNA methylation study of PTSD and depression in World Trade Center responders
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Stress & executive functioning: A review considering moderating factors
Plieger, T., & Reuter, M. (2020) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2020.107254 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
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DNA methylation correlates of PTSD: Recent findings and technical challenges
Morrison, F. G., Miller, M. W., Logue, M. W., Assef, M., & Wolf, E. J. (2018) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.11.011 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Childhood trauma, the stress response and metabolic syndrome: A focus on DNA methylation
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Resilience Against Traumatic Stress: Current Developments and Future Directions
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Self-citationUnderstanding the health effects of caregiving stress: New directions in molecular aging
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Childhood abuse v. neglect and risk for major psychiatric disorders
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Self-citationPTSD is associated with increased DNA methylation across regions of HLA-DPB1 and SPATC1L
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Childhood adverse life events and parental psychopathology as risk factors for bipolar disorder
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The role of environmental stress and DNA methylation in the longitudinal course of bipolar disorder
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Neurobiological and psychological factors to depression
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Prenatal maternal distress and immune cell epigenetic profiles at 3‐months of age
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The Dynamic Regulation of G-Quadruplex DNA Structures by Cytosine Methylation
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Self-citationA lifetime perspective on risk factors for cognitive decline with a special focus on early events
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Biomarkers of post-traumatic stress disorder from emotional trauma: A systematic review
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Infant DNA methylation: an early indicator of intergenerational trauma?
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Why epigenetics is (not) a biosocial science and why that matters
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Psychiatric disorders, morbidity, and mortality: tracing mechanistic pathways to accelerated aging
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Psychosomatic Aspects of The Development of Comorbid Pathology: A Review
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The role of CACNA1C gene and childhood trauma interaction on bipolar disorder
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Self-citationIntimate partner violence and stress-related disorders: from epigenomics to resilience
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The role of stress in the biological embedding of experience
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Enacting biosocial complexity: Stress, epigenetic biomarkers and the tools of postgenomics
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Indicators of functional integrity in production animals
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Oxytocin receptor genes moderate BDNF epigenetic methylation by childhood trauma
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War Exposure and DNA Methylation in Syrian Refugee Children and Adolescents
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Molecular characterization of the stress network in individuals at risk for schizophrenia
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Early life stress, FKBP5 polymorphisms, and quantitative glycemic traits
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From Epigenetic Associations to Biological and Psychosocial Explanations in Mental Health
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Threshold photoelectron spectroscopy of 9-methyladenine: theory and experiment
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Deconstructing the mental health crisis: 5 uneasy pieces
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Biobehavioral organization shapes the immune epigenome in infant rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta)
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Exposure to Juvenile Stress Induces Epigenetic Alterations in the GABAergic System in Rats
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Genetische Grundlagen der Posttraumatischen Belastungsstörung (PTBS)
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Early Life Stress and DNA Methylation
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The prevalence and significance of childhood trauma in alcohol-dependent patients
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The potential of epigenetic methods to provide evidence of torture
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Potential transgenerational epigenetic effects of prolonged stress and psychological trauma
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Self-citationS-adenosylmethionine as an epigenetic treatment of depression in adults with childhood trauma
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Cross‐Tissue Specificity of Pediatric DNA Methylation Associated With Cumulative Family Stress
Chan, M. H.-M., Merrill, S. M., Fatima, F., MacIsaac, J. L., Obradović, J., Boyce, W. T., & Kobor, M. S. (2025) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.70097 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Molecular characterization of the stress network in the human brainPreprint
Meijer, M., Keo, A., van Leeuwen, J. M. C., Dzyubachyk, O., Meijer, O. C., Vinkers, C. H., & Mahfouz, A. E. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/661587 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationLife History Model of Psychopathology
Knowles, J., Capiron, R., Tredway, C., & Burke, D. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_702-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Long-term effects of early-life adversity on DNA methylation in zebra finchesPreprint
Tangili, M., Jimeno, B., Briga, M., Palsbøll, P. J., & Verhulst, S. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.04.23.649997 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Seelische Entwicklungen des Menschen und Entwicklungspsychopathologie
Schüßler, G. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-45028-0_12-1
Entwicklungspsycholopathologische Grundlagen psychischer Erkrankungen
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Aberrant DNA Methylation Patterns in Gynecologic Cancers
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New Insights on the Treatment of Emotional Problems
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- Authors
- Vinkers, C. H., Kalafateli, A. L., Rutten, B. P., Kas, M. J., Kaminsky, Z., Turner, J. D., & Boks, M. P.
- Affiliations
- University Medical Center Utrecht (NL)
- Yale University (US)
- Maastricht University Medical Centre (NL)
- Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Department of Translational Neuroscience, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Laboratoire National de Santé (LU)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Epigenomics
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2015-06
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 593-608
- ISSN
- 1750-1911 (ISSN-L)
- 1750-192X
- OpenAlex
- W1869592690
- Cited by
- 112
- References
- 89
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 1.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Epigenomics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (publishedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Neuroscience and Cognition initiative from the University Utrecht
- VENI (451.13.001)
- The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research
- Netherlands B rain Foundation Fellowship (F2013(1) -216)
- Brain Foundation Fellowship (916.11.086)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Epigenetics and DNA Methylation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Keywords
- traumatic stress, DNA methylation, epigenetics, trauma exposure, prenatal trauma, early trauma, adult trauma, tissue type, developmental stages, longitudinal study
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Base Sequence, Humans, Molecular Sequence Data, DNA Methylation, Stress Disorders, Traumatic, Epigenesis, Genetic
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