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Current State of Type 1 Diabetes Treatment in the U.S.: Updated Data From the T1D Exchange Clinic Registry
Abstract
To examine the overall state of metabolic control and current use of advanced diabetes technologies in the U.S., we report recent data collected on individuals with type 1 diabetes participating in the T1D Exchange clinic registry. Data from 16,061 participants updated between 1 September 2013 and 1 December 2014 were compared with registry enrollment data collected from 1 September 2010 to 1 August 2012. Mean hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) was assessed by year of age from <4 to >75 years. The overall average HbA1c was 8.2% (66 mmol/mol) at enrollment and 8.4% (68 mmol/mol) at the most recent update. During childhood, mean HbA1c decreased from 8.3% (67 mmol/mol) in 2–4-year-olds to 8.1% (65 mmol/mol) at 7 years of age, followed by an increase to 9.2% (77 mmol/mol) in 19-year-olds. Subsequently, mean HbA1c values decline gradually until ∼30 years of age, plateauing at 7.5–7.8% (58–62 mmol/mol) beyond age 30 until a modest drop in HbA1c below 7.5% (58 mmol/mol) in those 65 years of age. Severe hypoglycemia (SH) and diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) remain all too common complications of treatment, especially in older (SH) and younger patients (DKA). Insulin pump use increased slightly from enrollment (58–62%), and use of continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) did not change (7%). Although the T1D Exchange registry findings are not population based and could be biased, it is clear that there remains considerable room for improving outcomes of treatment of type 1 diabetes across all age-groups. Barriers to more effective use of current treatments need to be addressed and new therapies are needed to achieve optimal metabolic control in people with type 1 diabetes.
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“CGM, including isCGM (hereafter, unless stated, CGM includes both rtCGM and isCGM), is being used by an increasing number of people with type 1 diabetes (T1D).(15,16) The key benefits of CGM include real‐time data monitoring for people with T1D and access for them and their HCPs to complete glucose datasets;(17) both…”
MethodTodd, J. A., Evangelou, M., Cutler, A. J., Pękalski, M. Ł., Walker, N. M., Stevens, H. E., Porter, L., Smyth, D. J., Rainbow, D. B., Ferreira, R. C., et al. (2016) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002139 · Cited by 138
“The result is a lifelong requirement for intensive insulin treatment that increases the risk of hypoglycaemia and stops the majority of patients from achieving adequate metabolic control to prevent the long-term complications of retinopathy, neuropathy, and/or nephropathy [2,3].”
Berget, C., Messer, L. H., Vigers, T., Frohnert, B. I., Pyle, L. L., Wadwa, R. P., Driscoll, K. A., & Forlenza, G. P. (2019) · Pediatric Diabetes · doi:10.1111/pedi.12962 · Cited by 138
“This improvement in HbA1c is particularly remarkable as 37% of participants were 14-17 years of age, the age range when HbA1c tends to be the highest.(3,7) Notably, the participants with the highest baseline HbA1c experienced the greatest decline in HbA1c after 6 months of Auto Mode use.”
BackgroundHaidar, A., Tsoukas, M. A., Bernier-Twardy, S., Yale, J., Rutkowski, J., Bossy, A., Pytka, E., Fathi, A. E., Strauss, N., & Legault, L. (2020) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc19-1922 · Cited by 149
Risk of Severe Hypoglycemia in Type 1 Diabetes Over 30 Years of Follow-up in the DCCT/EDIC Study
Gubitosi‐Klug, R., Braffett, B. H., White, N. H., Sherwin, R. S., Service, F. J., Lachin, J. M., & Tamborlane, W. V. (2017) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc16-2723 · Cited by 140
Self-citationBerget, C., Messer, L. H., & Forlenza, G. P. (2019) · Diabetes Spectrum · doi:10.2337/ds18-0091 · Cited by 151
Psychometric Properties of the Problem Areas in Diabetes: Teen and Parent of Teen Versions
Shapiro, J. B., Vesco, A. T., Weil, L. E. G., Evans, M. A., Hood, K. K., & Weissberg-Benchell, J. A. (2017) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsx146 · Cited by 139
“During adolescence, adherence, and parental monitoring for diabetes tasks declines (Main et al., 2014) and glycemic control worsens (Miller et al., 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialMesser, L. H., Tanenbaum, M. L., Cook, P. F., Wong, J. J., Hanes, S. J., Driscoll, K. A., & Hood, K. K. (2020) · Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1089/dia.2019.0509 · Cited by 131
Šoupal, J., Petruželková, L., Flekač, M., Pelcl, T., Matoulek, M., Daňková, M., Škrha, J., Svačina, Š., & Prázný, M. (2016) · Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1089/dia.2016.0171 · Cited by 126
Messer, L. H., Forlenza, G. P., Sherr, J. L., Wadwa, R. P., Buckingham, B. A., WEINZIMER, S. A., Maahs, D. M., & Slover, R. H. (2018) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc17-1682 · Cited by 126
Self-citationBailey, T. S., Grunberger, G., Bode, B. W., Handelsman, Y., Hirsch, I. B., Jovanovič, L., Roberts, V. L., Rodbard, D., Tamborlane, W. V., & Walsh, J. S. A. (2016) · Endocrine Practice · doi:10.4158/ep151124.cs · Cited by 130
Self-citationInsulin pump therapy in children with type 1 diabetes: analysis of data from the SWEET registry
Szypowska, A., Schwandt, A., Svensson, J., Shalitin, S., Cardona‐Hernandez, R., Forsander, G., Sundberg, F., de Beaufort, C. E., Maahs, D. M., Maffeis, C., et al. (2016) · Pediatric Diabetes · doi:10.1111/pedi.12416 · Cited by 126
“The prevalence of CSII therapy usage has increased in many countries, but there are still differences in CSII usage among countries.10 The overall use of insulin pumps in patients 0-18 y was 74% (2011) in Slovenia,7 and 58-65% (2015) in United States.15 The data from three large registries of pediatric type 1 diabetes…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationSGLT2 inhibitors as adjunctive therapy for type 1 diabetes: Balancing benefits and risks
Taylor, S. I., Blau, J. E., Rother, K. I., & Beitelshees, A. L. (2019) · The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/s2213-8587(19)30154-8 · Cited by 124
Abraham, M. B., de Bock, M. I., Smith, G. J., Dart, J., Fairchild, J. M., King, B. R., Ambler, G. R., Cameron, F. J., McAuley, S. A., KEECH, A. C., et al. (2021) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.3965 · Cited by 128
Bergenstal, R. M., Bailey, T. S., Rodbard, D., Ziemen, M., Guo, H., Muehlen-Bartmer, I., & Ahmann, A. (2017) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc16-0684 · Cited by 122
Self-citationContinuous Glucose Monitoring: A Brief Review for Primary Care Practitioners
Ajjan, R., Slattery, D., & Wright, E. E. (2019) · Advances in Therapy · doi:10.1007/s12325-019-0870-x · Cited by 133
Hermann, J. M., Miller, K. M., Hofer, S. E., Clements, M. A., Karges, W., Foster, N. C., Fröhlich-Reiterer, E. E., Rickels, M. R., Rosenbauer, J., DeSalvo, D. J., et al. (2019) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.14148 · Cited by 121
Self-citationPettus, J., & Edelman, S. V. (2016) · Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology · doi:10.1177/1932296816663747 · Cited by 122
“However, given the recent advances in the accuracy, reliability, and usability of rtCGM systems that have alerts and ROC arrows, many clinicians and patients feel strongly that SMBG does not provide adequate information to effectively manage insulintreated diabetes to avoid extreme hyperglycemia and safeguard against…”
BackgroundLatres, E., Finan, D. A., Greenstein, J. L., Kowalski, A. J., & Kieffer, T. J. (2019) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2019.02.007 · Cited by 124
Wan, W., Skandari, M. R., Minc, A., Nathan, A. G., Winn, A. N., Zarei, P., O’Grady, M. J., & Huang, E. S. (2018) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc17-1821 · Cited by 126
Benoit, S. R., Hora, I., Pasquel, F. J., Gregg, E. W., Albright, A. L., & Imperatore, G. (2020) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc19-2449 · Cited by 117
Optimal use of diabetes devices: clinician perspectives on barriers and adherence to device use
Tanenbaum, M. L., Adams, R. N., Hanes, S. J., Barley, R. C., Miller, K. M., Mulvaney, S. A., & Hood, K. K. (2017) · Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology · doi:10.1177/1932296816688010 · Cited by 117
Sousa, G. R., Pober, D., Galderisi, A., Lv, H., Yu, L., Pereira, A. C., Doria, A., Kosiborod, M., & Lipes, M. A. (2019) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/circulationaha.118.036068 · Cited by 117
Messer, L. H., Johnson, R., Driscoll, K. A., & Jones, J. (2017) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.13568 · Cited by 124
Varni, J. W., Delamater, A. M., Hood, K. K., Raymond, J. K., CHANG, N. T., Driscoll, K. A., Wong, J. C., Yi‐Frazier, J. P., Grishman, E. K., Faith, M. A., et al. (2018) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc17-2707 · Cited by 116
“Rates of insulin pump and continuous glucose monitor use in the sample are similar to published data from the T1D Exchange Clinic Registry (34), further supporting the representativeness of the sample.”
ResultPrahalad, P., Tanenbaum, M. L., Hood, K. K., & Maahs, D. M. (2018) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.13588 · Cited by 125
Self-citationPhelan, H., Clapin, H. F., Bruns, L., Cameron, F. J., Cotterill, A. M., Couper, J., Davis, E. A., Donaghue, K. C., Jefferies, C., King, B. R., et al. (2017) · The Medical Journal of Australia · doi:10.5694/mja16.00737 · Cited by 113
Preserving Skin Integrity with Chronic Device Use in Diabetes
Messer, L. H., Berget, C., Beatson, C. R., Polsky, S., & Forlenza, G. P. (2018) · Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1089/dia.2018.0080 · Cited by 113
Sleep in children with type 1 diabetes and their parents in the T1D Exchange
Jaser, S. S., Foster, N. C., Nelson, B., Kittelsrud, J. M., DiMeglio, L. A., Quinn, M., Willi, S. M., & Simmons, J. H. (2017) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2017.07.005 · Cited by 112
Self-citationNaranjo, D. M., Tanenbaum, M. L., Iturralde, E., & Hood, K. K. (2016) · Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology · doi:10.1177/1932296816650900 · Cited by 111
“In terms of CGM and health outcomes, 3 pivotal trials – the JDRF CGM randomized controlled trial,(13) Guard Control Study,(26) and O’Connell and colleagues(27) – demonstrated that adults on CGM had better A1C than blood glucose monitoring alone without an increase of hypoglycemic episodes,(28) as well as a lower frequ…”
BackgroundInfluentialGarg, S. K., Peters, A. L., Buse, J. B., & Danne, T. (2018) · Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1089/dia.2018.0246 · Cited by 108
“In the emergency department, the same protocol involving carbohydrates, fluids, and insulin should be used to treat DKA.”
InfluentialHagger, V. L., Hendrieckx, C., Cameron, F. J., Pouwer, F., Skinner, T. C., & Speight, J. (2018) · Pediatric Diabetes · doi:10.1111/pedi.12641 · Cited by 115
Jia, L., Shan, K., Pan, L., Feng, N., Lv, Z., Sun, Y., Li, J., Wu, C., Zhang, H., Chen, W., et al. (2017) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2017.01345 · Cited by 106
Metadata
- Authors
- Miller, K. M., Foster, N. C., Beck, R. W., Bergenstal, R. M., DuBose, S. N., DiMeglio, L. A., Maahs, D. M., & Tamborlane, W. V.
- Affiliations
- Jaeb Center for Health Research (US)
- Park Nicollet Health Services (US)
- Indiana University School of Medicine (US)
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, Aurora, CO
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Miller, Kellee M.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Diabetes Care
- Publisher
- American Diabetes Association
- Published
- 2015-05-12
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 971-978
- ISSN
- 0149-5992 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-5548
- OpenAlex
- W2098570086
- Cited by
- 1,254
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 64 · 2023: 88 · 2022: 81 · 2021: 134 · 2020: 157 · 2019: 198 · 2018: 176 · 2017: 138 · 2016: 108 · 2015: 19
- FWCI
- 127.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Diabetes Care (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Leona M. and Harry B. Helmsley Charitable Trust
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Education
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Diabetes and associated disorders
- Keywords
- type 1 diabetes, glycemic control, HbA1c, severe hypoglycemia, diabetic ketoacidosis, insulin pump therapy, continuous glucose monitoring, diabetes technology, age trends
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Child, Child, Preschool, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1, Health Services Needs and Demand, Glycated Hemoglobin, Humans, Insulin Infusion Systems, Male, Middle Aged, Registries, United States, Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring, Comorbidity, Diabetic Ketoacidosis, Young Adult
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