The DOI matches its Crossref record; 26 of the 26 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Correlates, Causes, Effects, and Treatment of Test Anxiety
Abstract
Results of 562 studies were integrated by meta-analysis to show the nature, effects, and treatment of academic test anxiety. Effect sizes were computed through the method invented by Glass ( Glass, McGaw, & Smith, 1981 ). Correlations and effect-size groups were tested for consistency and significance with inferential statistics by Hedges and Olkin (1985) . Test anxiety (TA) causes poor performance. It relates inversely to students’ self-esteem and directly to their fears of negative evaluation, defensiveness, and other forms of anxiety. Conditions (causes) giving rise to differential TA levels include ability, gender, and school grade level. A variety of treatments are effective in reducing test anxiety. Contrary to prior perceptions, improved test performance and grade point average (GPA) consistently accompany TA reduction.
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Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Anxious individuals tend to experience anxiety in testing situations (39)”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“Meta-analyses have consistently shown that test anxiety occurs at higher levels in women than in men (Hembree, 1988;von der Embse et al., 2018).”
From Impacts of Standards-Based Grading on Students’ Mindset and Test Anxiety (2022) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Hancock (2001) and Hembree (1988) reported that negative cognitions related to examinations, when such students underestimate their own abilities, or overestimation of the consequences related to their failure, are often accompanied by higher anxiety levels and poor performance.”
From Examining perceptions of academic stress and its sources among university students: The Perception of Academic Stress Scale (2015) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Like low motivation, test anxiety can significantly impair performance (Hembree [1988]).”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Hembree [1988]
In the citing paper
“It is also known that test anxiety that emerges in evaluation environments has a negative effect on one ' s personal development, academic performance, and consequently career and business life (Hembree, 1988; McDonald, 2001; Putwain & Best, 2011; Sarason & Sarason, 1990; Topp, 1989; Y ı ld ı r ı m & Ergene, 2003).”
From Reducing Test Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (2024) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Specific to high-stakes test situations, scholars argue that mathematics anxiety seems to be an aspect of “situational specific psychological distress” rather than an aspect of “mathematics” (Hembree, 1988).”
From The influences of mindfulness on high-stakes mathematics test achievement of middle school students (2023) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“A comprehensive review found converging evidence of higher mathematics achievement usually accompanies a reduction in mathematics anxiety (Hembree, 1988).”
From The influences of mindfulness on high-stakes mathematics test achievement of middle school students (2023) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
Citations
Cites
Wasserman, S. S., Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1988) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.2307/1164953 · Cited by 10,377
Meta-analysis in social research
(1982) · Evaluation and Program Planning · doi:10.1016/0149-7189(82)90011-8 · Cited by 3,896
Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education.
Smith, H., & Ferguson, G. A. (1967) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2283699 · Cited by 2,221
Cognitive and Emotional Components of Test Anxiety: A Distinction and Some Initial Data
Liebert, R. M., & Morris, L. W. (1967) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1967.20.3.975 · Cited by 1,161
Spielberger, C. D. (1972) · Anxiety · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-657401-2.50009-5 · Cited by 1,102
A study of anxiety and learning.
Mandler, G., & Sarason, S. B. (1952) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0062855 · Cited by 1,074
Test anxiety and direction of attention
Wine, J. (1971) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0031332 · Cited by 1,055
Anxiety in academic achievement situations.
Alpert, R., & Haber, R. N. (1960) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0045464 · Cited by 1,049
Test anxiety : theory, research, and applications
Sarason, I. G. (1980) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 719
Anxiety in elementary school children: A report of research.
Sarason, S. B., Davidson, K. S., Lighthall, F. F., Waite, R. R., & Ruebush, B. K. (1960) · John Wiley & Sons, Inc. eBooks · doi:10.1037/14349-000 · Cited by 527
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- Denney D, 1980, Test anxiety: Theory, research, and applications, 209
- Hedges L, 1985, Statistical methods for meta-analysis
- Hembree R, 1987, A bibliography of research on academic test anxiety
- Hill K, 1972, The young child, 2, 225
- Sarason I, 1980, Test anxiety: Theory, research, and applications, 3
- Spielberger C, 1976, Emotion and anxiety: New concepts, methods, and applications, 317
- Wildemuth B, 1977, Test anxiety: An extensive bibliography
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,001–1,004 of 1,004
Pires, C. P., Putwain, D. W., Hofmann, S. G., Martins, D. S., MacKenzie, M. B., Kocovski, N. L., & Salvador, M. D. C. (2020) · Revista de Psicopatologia y Psicologia Clinica · doi:10.5944/rppc.29014 · Cited by 6
“…of feelings of anxiety when facing school evaluations, which test anxiety stands for (Zeidner, 1998), as well as evidence on the prevalence and impairing effects of this phenomenon over the last decades, seems to ascertain its underlying importance (Hembree, 1988, von der Embse et al., 2018).”
BackgroundDoes Retrieval Practice Protect Memory Against Stress? A Meta-Analysis
Mihaylova, M., Zocca, M., Kliegel, M., & Rothen, N. (2025) · Swiss Psychology Open · doi:10.5334/spo.101 · Cited by 1
Bannon, E. E., O’Brien, W. H., Peijsel, C., Teerapong, T., Uthayaratana, T., Boonyarit, I., & Chavanovanich, J. (2025) · International Journal of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy · doi:10.1007/s41811-025-00273-0
“In CIT, evaluation anxiety leads to increased levels of emotional reactivity and off-task thinking which can take the form of catastrophic thinking, rumination, a focus on psychophysiological symptoms, and/or thoughts about failure (Sarason, 1984 , 1988 ; Sarason et al., 1990 ).”
Academic performance and perceived stress among university students
(2012) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.5897/err10.192 · Cited by 66
Metadata
- Authors
- Hembree, R.
- Affiliations
- Adrian College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hembree, Ray
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 1988-03
- Volume
- 58
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 47-77
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- OpenAlex
- W2118425840
- Cited by
- 1,723
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 77 · 2021: 90 · 2020: 121 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 74 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 79 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 90
- FWCI
- 11.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Student Stress and Coping
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- test anxiety, academic performance, self-esteem, fear of negative evaluation, defensiveness, anxiety, ability, gender differences, grade level, grade point average
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