The DOI matches its Crossref record; 26 of the 26 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Correlates, Causes, Effects, and Treatment of Test Anxiety
Abstract
Results of 562 studies were integrated by meta-analysis to show the nature, effects, and treatment of academic test anxiety. Effect sizes were computed through the method invented by Glass ( Glass, McGaw, & Smith, 1981 ). Correlations and effect-size groups were tested for consistency and significance with inferential statistics by Hedges and Olkin (1985) . Test anxiety (TA) causes poor performance. It relates inversely to students’ self-esteem and directly to their fears of negative evaluation, defensiveness, and other forms of anxiety. Conditions (causes) giving rise to differential TA levels include ability, gender, and school grade level. A variety of treatments are effective in reducing test anxiety. Contrary to prior perceptions, improved test performance and grade point average (GPA) consistently accompany TA reduction.
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In the citing paper
“Anxious individuals tend to experience anxiety in testing situations (39)”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“Meta-analyses have consistently shown that test anxiety occurs at higher levels in women than in men (Hembree, 1988;von der Embse et al., 2018).”
From Impacts of Standards-Based Grading on Students’ Mindset and Test Anxiety (2022) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Hancock (2001) and Hembree (1988) reported that negative cognitions related to examinations, when such students underestimate their own abilities, or overestimation of the consequences related to their failure, are often accompanied by higher anxiety levels and poor performance.”
From Examining perceptions of academic stress and its sources among university students: The Perception of Academic Stress Scale (2015) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Like low motivation, test anxiety can significantly impair performance (Hembree [1988]).”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Hembree [1988]
In the citing paper
“It is also known that test anxiety that emerges in evaluation environments has a negative effect on one ' s personal development, academic performance, and consequently career and business life (Hembree, 1988; McDonald, 2001; Putwain & Best, 2011; Sarason & Sarason, 1990; Topp, 1989; Y ı ld ı r ı m & Ergene, 2003).”
From Reducing Test Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (2024) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Specific to high-stakes test situations, scholars argue that mathematics anxiety seems to be an aspect of “situational specific psychological distress” rather than an aspect of “mathematics” (Hembree, 1988).”
From The influences of mindfulness on high-stakes mathematics test achievement of middle school students (2023) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“A comprehensive review found converging evidence of higher mathematics achievement usually accompanies a reduction in mathematics anxiety (Hembree, 1988).”
From The influences of mindfulness on high-stakes mathematics test achievement of middle school students (2023) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
Citations
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“…supported that the components of TA include Worry, Emotionality, Interference, and Lack of Confidence (Hodapp, 1991, 1995), with Worry consistently demonstrating a greater negative impact on test performance compared to the other factors (Deffenbacher, 1980; Hembree, 1988; Liebert & Morris, 1967).”
InfluentialAffect and Cognitive Interference: An Examination of Their Effect on Self-Regulated Learning
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O’Neil, H. F., Baker, E. L., & Matsuura, S. (1992) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615809208249524 · Cited by 16
Test anxiety and metamemory: general preference for external over internal information storage
Stöber, J., & Esser, K. B. (2001) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00069-6 · Cited by 16
“Whereas the relationship between test anxiety and memory is well documented (e.g., Hembree, 1988), only very little is known about the relationship between test anxiety and metamemory (Zeidner, 1998).”
Emotionsregulation: Vom Umgang mit Prüfungsangst
Pekrun, R. H., & Götz, T. (2006) · KOPS (University of Konstanz) · Cited by 16
Zeidner, M. (2004) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b0-12-657410-3/00958-2 · Cited by 16
The Five-Factor Model of Personality: Consensus and Controversy
McCrae, R. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.013 · Cited by 20
Assessment-related anxiety among older adults: associations with neuropsychological test performance
Dorenkamp, M. A., Irrgang, M., & Vik, P. W. (2021) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2021.2016584 · Cited by 18
“…older adult; dementia worry Test anxiety is a recognized concern among children and young adults in academic settings (Chapell et al., 2005; Hembree, 1988; Moran, 2016); however, anxiety-disrupted test performance among older adults during a neuropsychological assessment is far less…”
BackgroundJournault, A., Plante, I., Charbonneau, S., Sauvageau, C., Longpré, C., Giguère, C.-É., Labonté, C., Roger, K., Cernik, R., Chaffee, K., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1035494 · Cited by 12
“Although some studies found that younger students reported higher levels of test anxiety than older ones among a sample of elementary school students (Arnold, 2002; Aydin, 2017), others observed that both forms of anxiety remained relatively stable (Hembree, 1988; Aydin, 2013; Allan et al., 2016) or that test anxiety…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialCassady, J., Helsper, A., & Quagliano, Q. (2024) · Behavioral Science · doi:10.3390/bs14020096 · Cited by 17
““Emotionality” is more accurately described as the physiological component and is characterized by experiences such as shortness of breath, elevated heart rates, or nausea in response to evaluative contexts [6,7].”
BackgroundThe Impact of Achievement Goals on Cardiorespiratory Fitness: Does Self-Efficacy Make a Difference?
Gao, Z., Xiang, P., Lochbaum, M. R., & Guan, J. (2013) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2013.814908 · Cited by 15
“Similarly, MAv was found to be positively related to test anxiety (e.g., Elliot & Pekrun, 2007), but test anxiety was negatively associated with student learning and performance (see Hembree, 1988).”
BackgroundTHE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANXIETY AND COGNITIVE STYLE MEASURED ON THE STROOP TEST
Alansari, B. M. (2004) · Social Behavior and Personality An International Journal · doi:10.2224/sbp.2004.32.3.283 · Cited by 15
Discovering Factors of Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety and Coping Strategies
Rafieyan, V. (2016) · Journal for the Study of English Linguistics · doi:10.5296/jsel.v4i1.9668 · Cited by 15
“According to Hembree (1988) there are three approaches to cope with anxiety.”
BackgroundInfluentialGray, G., McGuinness, C., & Owende, P. M. O. (2016) · SensePublishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-6300-591-3_10 · Cited by 16
The impact of financial literacy on negotiation behavior
Krische, S. D., & Mislin, A. A. (2020) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics · doi:10.1016/j.socec.2020.101545 · Cited by 20
Patterns of Attention and Anxiety in Predicting Arithmetic Fluency among School-Aged Children
Orbach, L., & Fritz, A. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12030376 · Cited by 17
Lönnqvist, J., Vainikainen, M., & Verkasalo, M. (2011) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.849 · Cited by 15
“However, research on such test anxiety has shown that in the early grades, children experience little test anxiety and that its prevalence rises sharply only in later childhood (Grades 3–5; Hembree, 1988).”
BackgroundErzen, E., & Odacı, H. (2014) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.923555 · Cited by 15
“The emotional dimension is used to express test-related negative psychological reactions such as tension and nervousness (Wigfield & Meece, 1988) and autonomic reactions such as sweating and accelerated heart rate (Hembree, 1988).”
MethodLowe, P. A., Ang, R. P.-H., & Loke, S. W. (2011) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-011-9250-9 · Cited by 18
“Test anxiety is reported to be significantly correlated with measures of general anxiety and with symptoms of different types of anxiety disorders, including generalized and social anxiety disorders (Beidel and Turner 1988; Hembree 1988).”
BackgroundIndividual differences in anxiety and fear learning: The role of working memory capacity
Laing, P. A. F., Burns, N. R., & Baetu, I. (2018) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.12.006 · Cited by 16
Student experiences on taking electronic exams at the University of Helsinki
Rytkönen, A., & Myyry, L. (2014) · Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja · Cited by 15
Gender Differences in Test Anxiety among South African University Students
Mwamwenda, T. S. (1993) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1993.76.2.554 · Cited by 15
“Studies relating test anxiety to students' academic achievement have also indicated a sex difference in test anxiety scores; women scored higher than men (2, 3, 4, 6, 8).”
BackgroundSung, Y. Y. (2014) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-014-9245-2 · Cited by 15
Collaborative Testing and Test Anxiety
Breedlove, W. L., Winfield, I., & Burkett, T. (2004) · Indiana Magazine of History (Indiana University) · Cited by 15
Metadata
- Authors
- Hembree, R.
- Affiliations
- Adrian College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hembree, Ray
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 1988-03
- Volume
- 58
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 47-77
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- OpenAlex
- W2118425840
- Cited by
- 1,723
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 77 · 2021: 90 · 2020: 121 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 74 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 79 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 90
- FWCI
- 11.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Student Stress and Coping
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- test anxiety, academic performance, self-esteem, fear of negative evaluation, defensiveness, anxiety, ability, gender differences, grade level, grade point average
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