Correlates, Causes, Effects, and Treatment of Test Anxiety

“…how the construct is applied to test anxiety), and self‑esteem, which refers to how one evaluates oneself on the whole Educational Psychology Review (2023) 35:13 1 3 13 Page 16 of 29 (Baumeister, 1993; please refer to Hembree, 1988 for an example of how the con‑ struct is applied to test anxiety).”

“Research has shown that many features of traditional assessments like multiple choice response options and static, feedback-absent test forms contribute to test anxiety (Hembree, 1988), which can inhibit the ability of an assessment to measure the true score for some assessees.”

“Several meta-analyses have documented that self-reported test anxiety correlates negatively with test performance (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Hembree, 1988; Seipp, 1991).”

“Studies about general intelligence, rather than giftedness, also support this conclusion: the meta-analyses by Hembree (1988) and Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) reported moderate negative correlations between the levels of test anxiety and intelligence scores (rs between −0.10 and −0.33; see…”

“Nitekim alan yazındaki araştırmalarda öğrencilerin akademik performansları ile başarıları arasındaki ters yönlü bir ilişki olduğu vurgulanmaktadır (Hembree, 1988; Rana ve Mahmood, 2010).”

“Many empirical studies have shown that the cognitive component of test anxiety (i.e., worry) is more closely related to performance decrements than the emotionality component (Covington, 1992; Hembree, 1988; O’Neil & Fukumura, 1992; Seipp, 1991; Spielberger, 1980).”

“Based on these findings, Hembree concluded that anxiety caused poor performance.2 Another study compared the GPA of 121 students who were diagnosed with depression and found that the duration of depression symptoms during a college termwas associatedwith a lower GPA in that term.4 In addition, they found that treating…”

“, 2010), low self-esteem (Pekrun, 2000), lower grades and academic performance (Eum & Rice, 2011; Segool, Carlson, Goforth, Von der Embse, & Barterian, 2013), grade retention (Hembree, 1988), and dropout (Chapell et al.”

“1 Alan, Boneva, and Ertac [20]; 2 Segal [21]; 3 Beus and Whitman [22]; Sackett, Zedeck, and Fogli [23]; 4 Hembree [24]; 5 van der Linden [25]; 6 Liu, Bridgeman, and Adler [26], Finn [27]; 7 Hembree [28]; 8 Steele and Aronson [29]; 9 Liu, et al. [26], Finn [27]; 10 Beilock [30]; 11 DeBeer and Janssen [31]; 12 Rabbit [3…”

“Situationally triggered interest is known to improve performance by stimulating positive affective responses and persistence (Ainley, Hidi, & Berndorff, 2002), whereas anxiety is presumed to impair performance (Hembree, 1988; Seipp, 1991).”

“A robust finding in the extant literature is that higher test anxiety is associated with lower academic achievement (e.g. Hembree, 1988).”

“Test anxiety has been a common research topic since the early 1950s, something that is well illustrated by Hembree’s ( 1988 ) meta-analysis of 562 studies of test anxiety conducted between 1950 and 1986 (see also Seipp, 1991 ).”

“1.2.2 | Anxiety and performance Heightened anxiety has consistently been associated with lowered performance in a variety of domains, such as academic test‐taking and sports performance (Hembree, 1988; Namkung et al., 2019; Woodman & Hardy, 2003).”

“Studies of both mathematics anxiety and test anxiety show that these constructs are negatively related to motivation and achievement (Hembree, 1988) and to students’ self-beliefs, for instance mathematics self-concept and self-efficacy (Hembree, 1988; Jain & Dowson, 2009; Schwarzer, & Jerusalem, 1992; Schwarzer, Muell…”

“Cognitive load might be most relevant for the cognitive anxious apprehension component of anxiety (Hembree, 1988; Seip, 1991).”

“I do not ask for help even when I need it, Median (IQR) 2 (1-3) 2 (1.”

“Moreover, different studies support an inverse association between anxiety and performance [4,5].”

“In addition, cumulative neuropsychological evidence suggests that anxiety is associated with performance impairment on numerous cognitive tasks (Hembree 1988).”

“The two treatments were found to be equally effective in dealing with test anxiety (eg, Hembree, 1988 ; Zeidner, 1998 ).”

“Meta-analytic results reveal that African American school children in second to fourth grade, on average, report significantly higher TA scores than their European American counterparts (Hembree, 1988).”

“This is surprising, as test anxiety and gender differences in conventional testing are well established in the test anxiety literature (Hembree, 1988).”

“Test anxiety, another significant issue in schooling, has been studied extensively, showing that it not only has adverse effects on performance but also creates difficulties in assessing students’ actual level of competence (Hembree, 1988; Owens, Stevenson, Hadwin, & Norgate, 2012).”

“Conversely, high levels of affective test anxiety are generally associated with negative outcomes only during the test-performance phase when cognitive test anxiety is also elevated (Hembree, 1988).”

“Based on meta-analytic results, Hembree (1988) found correlations between test anxiety and performance to generally be around -.25.”

“Consequently, test anxiety is a threat to validity and the interpretation of assessment outcomes and something that requires attention (Haladyna and Downing 2004; Hembree 1988; Wicherts and Zand Scholten 2010).”

“Additionally, whereas standardized assessments of achievement may be less vulnerable to bias than grades, performance on them is vulnerable to factors such as stereotype threat (Steele & Aronson, 1995) and test anxiety (Hembree, 1988).”

“In his meta-analysis of 562 North American studies (1952-1986), Hembree (1988) explored the correlates, causes, effects, and remediation of test anxiety.”

“Meta-analyses have consistently shown that test anxiety occurs at higher levels in women than in men (Hembree, 1988; Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 22, No. 2, June 2022. josotl.indiana.edu von der Embse et al., 2018).”

“…through two mechanisms: students ’ performance is impacted by distraction from the task at hand through pervasive, intrusive anxious thoughts, or by a failure to develop effective study techniques such that the information cannot be easily accessed during a high-pressure testing scenario 1,2 .”

“Neuroticism can have a negative impact on academic performance in stressful examination conditions such as end‐of‐year exams with time limitations (Hembree, 1988).”

“Although high test anxiety is distressing in itself, much the currency of the test anxiety construct comes from the well-replicated fi nding that test anxiety is associated with lowered R es ea rc h in E du ca tio n N o. 8 8 educational achievement (e.g. Hembree, 1988; Putwain, 2008).”

“While academic engagement can predict educational achievement (Dotterer & Lowe, 2011), test anxiety can be shown as a barrier to academic performance (Hembree, 1988).”

“Students that experience high levels of anxiety are less efficient using less self-regulated learning strategies (Pintrich, 2004) and characterized by low levels of well-being, self-acceptance, and self-control (Hembree, 1988).”

“Meanwhile, past studies have shown that test anxiety and poor test performance are significantly correlated (Hembree, 1988; Seipp, 1991).”

“…Barron, Carter, Lehto, & Elliot, 1997), on test anxiety because it represents an important negative marker of students’ academic functioning (Hembree, 1988), and on effort regulation because it is an important positive aspect of student learning and contributes to academic performance…”

“In general, the literature indicates a negative relation between test anxiety and academic test performance (Hembree, 1988; Seipp, 1991).”

“Internalizing emotions include negative emotions, such as anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation; all of which have been linked with school dissatisfaction (Eamon 2002; Hirsch and Rapkin 1987; Locke and Newcomb 2004) and poor academic achievement (Hembree 1988; Pekrun et al. 2002; Zeidner 1998).”

“anxiety or low self-efficacy on student achievement has consistently demonstrated that student anxiety causes poor achievement and is related to students’ fears of negative evaluations and to student defensiveness (Giota, 2006; Hembree, 1988).”

“While a mild level of anxiety can positively affect the learning process, an excess level of anxiety can negatively impact learning (Hembree, 1988).”

“Some research findings indicated a negative association between neuroticism and intelligence (Hembree, 1988; Moutafi, Furnham, & Paltiel, Moutafi, et al., (2005)).”

“Test anxiety, as distinct from more global social-evaluative anxiety, begins to differentiate itself specifically around 2nd grade and to increase across grade levels (Hembree, 1988; Hill, 1972).”

“For instance, there is a clear and consistent pattern of results in test anxiety literature suggesting that females as well as members of ethnic minority groups tend to report elevated levels of anxiety (Carter et al., 2008, Ergene, 2003; Hembree, 1988; McDonald, 2001).”

“Hundreds of studies have linked test anxiety (Hembree, 1988) and other types of anxiety (Seipp, 1991) with decreased academic performance, and internalizing puts children at risk of learning problems, lower achievement, and lower social skills (e.g., problem solving; Kovacs & Devlin, 1998).”

“Por exemplo, alta ansiedade mantida ao longo de uma prova é responsável por um rendimento abaixo do esperado (por ex., BZUNECK, 1991; CASSADY; JOHNSON (2002); HEMBREE, 1988; JACOBS; GROSS, 2014; JUSTICIA-GALIANO et al., 2016; PEKRUN et al. ,2011; REALI et al., 2016; ZEIDNER, 2014).”

“Hembree (1988) suggests that strong anxiety drives students to enact task-irrelevant behaviours that impair exam score.”

“A meta-analysis that included 562 studies found that as test anxiety increased, performance decreased in most arts and science college courses (Hembree, 1988).”

“In studies of meta-analysis, Hembree (1990) and Ma (1999) revealed that mathematics anxiety is inversely related to mathematics achievement.”

“For students taking tests, as well as those learning content material, anxiety has often been shown to interfere with performance ( Hembree 1988 , 1990 ; Seipp 1991 ).”

“Test anxiety consists of two dimensions, namely physiological responses experienced during evaluative situations and excessive worrying (Hembree, 1988).”

“These relations are stronger for difficult subject matter (Hembree, 1988) and important examinations (Morris & Fulmer, 1976).”

“…that test anxiety causes divided attention, leading to * Dana van Son dana.vanson@yale.edu 1 Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands 2 Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, The Netherlands 1 3 for example lower academic performance (Hembree 1988; Duty et al.”

“From a broader perspective, there is a plethora of studies focused on test-anxiety in the educational context (Hembree 1988; Zeidner 1998; Von der Embse et al. 2018) demonstrating that test-anxiety associates negatively to a range of behavioral and affective outcomes.”