The DOI matches its Crossref record; 26 of the 26 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Correlates, Causes, Effects, and Treatment of Test Anxiety
Abstract
Results of 562 studies were integrated by meta-analysis to show the nature, effects, and treatment of academic test anxiety. Effect sizes were computed through the method invented by Glass ( Glass, McGaw, & Smith, 1981 ). Correlations and effect-size groups were tested for consistency and significance with inferential statistics by Hedges and Olkin (1985) . Test anxiety (TA) causes poor performance. It relates inversely to students’ self-esteem and directly to their fears of negative evaluation, defensiveness, and other forms of anxiety. Conditions (causes) giving rise to differential TA levels include ability, gender, and school grade level. A variety of treatments are effective in reducing test anxiety. Contrary to prior perceptions, improved test performance and grade point average (GPA) consistently accompany TA reduction.
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In the citing paper
“Anxious individuals tend to experience anxiety in testing situations (39)”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“Meta-analyses have consistently shown that test anxiety occurs at higher levels in women than in men (Hembree, 1988;von der Embse et al., 2018).”
From Impacts of Standards-Based Grading on Students’ Mindset and Test Anxiety (2022) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Hancock (2001) and Hembree (1988) reported that negative cognitions related to examinations, when such students underestimate their own abilities, or overestimation of the consequences related to their failure, are often accompanied by higher anxiety levels and poor performance.”
From Examining perceptions of academic stress and its sources among university students: The Perception of Academic Stress Scale (2015) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Like low motivation, test anxiety can significantly impair performance (Hembree [1988]).”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Hembree [1988]
In the citing paper
“It is also known that test anxiety that emerges in evaluation environments has a negative effect on one ' s personal development, academic performance, and consequently career and business life (Hembree, 1988; McDonald, 2001; Putwain & Best, 2011; Sarason & Sarason, 1990; Topp, 1989; Y ı ld ı r ı m & Ergene, 2003).”
From Reducing Test Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (2024) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Specific to high-stakes test situations, scholars argue that mathematics anxiety seems to be an aspect of “situational specific psychological distress” rather than an aspect of “mathematics” (Hembree, 1988).”
From The influences of mindfulness on high-stakes mathematics test achievement of middle school students (2023) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“A comprehensive review found converging evidence of higher mathematics achievement usually accompanies a reduction in mathematics anxiety (Hembree, 1988).”
From The influences of mindfulness on high-stakes mathematics test achievement of middle school students (2023) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
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BackgroundThe effects of test anxiety on listening test performance
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“In contrast, cognitive components of anxiety and worry can cause poor academic performance due to perseverating on certain details (Hembree, 1988).”
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“…learning tasks because the student’s attention is devoted to feelings of worry and fear of failure rather than to focusing on the task at hand, leading to lower grades on exams and diminished feelings of personal control over the situation (i.e., external locus of control; Hembree, 1988).”
BackgroundInfluentialAn additive model of test anxiety: Role of exam-specific expectations.
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“Many studies have found that anxiety does have a negative impact on performance (Hembree, 1988; Stenlund et al., 2018; Von Der Embse et al., 2018; Wolf & Smith, 1995), while others have found that anxiety does not have a statistically significant effect on performance (Monrad et al., 2021; Sommer &…”
A subtle threat cue, heart rate variability, and cognitive performance
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“In our experiment, we assessed HRV reactivity independent of task engagement, assessed change in cognitive performance , and used a task requiring high-level cognitive processing known to be undermined by anxiety (Hembree, 1988).”
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“Students who experience test anxiety have lower achievement scores on high-stakes tests resulting in a variety of negative consequences (Hembree, 1988; Keogh, Bond, French, Richards, & Davis, 2004; Lufi, Okasha, & Cohen, 2004; McDonald, 2001; Raffety, Smith, & Ptacek, 1997).”
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“Moreover, given the evidence that females report higher levels of test anxiety than males (Cassady & Johnson, 2002; Hembree, 1988), future research should investigate gender differences in students' perceived sources of anxiety.”
BackgroundGendered differences in academic emotions and their implications for student success in STEM
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“This two-dimensional model predicts that learning is reduced when the emotional and worry components interact (i.e., Hembree 1988).”
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“…processing model do provide insight regarding the whole process of impact that test anxiety has on performance, many studies investigating test anxiety focus on the impact of emotionality and worry factors of test anxiety on performance (Hembree, 1988 cited in Bodas and Ollendick, 2005: 69).”
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“However, the empirical conditions for such a mediation are given (Kenny, Kashy, & Bolger, 1998), namely, significant relations between the predictor and the dependent variable (achievement/test anxiety relations; see above), significant relations between the predictor and the mediator (achievement/self-concept relatio…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialReactions to Computerized Testing in Selection Contexts
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“’ Test-taking anxiety has been found to relate negatively to test performance (e.g., Arvey et al., 1990; Hembree, 1988) and perceptions of the test (Barbera et al.”
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“Test anxiety is a reliable and robust, if modest, predictor of lower academic performance (Chapell et al., 2005; Hembree, 1988).”
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“In a recent meta-analysis, Hembree (1998) found test anxiety to be negatively correlated with achievement in college and high school populations as well as being related to performance and wellbeing.”
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“In a meta-analysis of 562 studies across all school grades, Hembree (1988) found that test anxiety seemed to be firmly established in children by second grade.”
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“Levels of test anxiety and the concomitant patterns of academic achievement are different apparently for male and female students ( Hembree, 1988; Wigfield and Eccles , 1989).”
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Handbook of Brief Cognitive Behaviour Therapy
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“This sex dichotomy is similar to that found in the literature (Egbochuku & Obodo, 2005; Hannon, 2012; Hembree, 1988; Szafranski et al., 2012; Zaheri et al., 2012; Zeidner, 1990), suggesting that self-report (PTAS) and TAI scores may be assessing similar”
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“Additional findings concerning the negative effects of test anxiety on large percentages of those placed in testing situations may be found elsewhere (for a review, see Hembree, 1988; Seipp, 1991).”
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“Although many studies have been conducted, one conclusive research work is a meta-analysis study (Hembree, 1988) that uses correlation coefficients between a wide range of measures of performance and test anxiety based on 562 North American studies published from 1952 through 1986.”
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BackgroundInfluentialExamination Anxiety: Live With It, Control It Or Make It Work For You?
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“A more recent meta-study by Hembree (1988) concluded that relaxation was effective in reducing test anxiety, but that the effects of relaxation on performance were found to be negligible.”
BackgroundInfluentialSome of the Reasons Why Preparing for Exams Is So Hard: What Can Be Done to Make It Easier?
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“Mathematics anxiety can be treated with the result being positive effects on mathematics achievement ( Hembree, 1988, 1990 ).”
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“These results are in line with previous studies suggesting the importance of both high trait and state anxiety in threat-interference [39,40,70] and performance [71,72].”
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Avoidance Goal Pursuit Depletes Self‐Regulatory Resources
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“…(e.g., distracting thoughts, experiencing anticipatory anxiety, feeling compelled to escape from the goal-relevant situation; Derryberry & Reed, 2002; Elliot & McGregor, 1999; Heimpel, Elliot, & Wood, 2006; Hembree, 1988; McFarland & Miller, 1994; Öhman, Flykt, & Esteves, 2001; Wegner, 1994).”
Students’ Motivation for Standardized Math Exams
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BackgroundEffects of student characteristics on grades in compulsory school
Lekholm, A. K., & Cliffordson, C. (2009) · Educational Research and Evaluation · doi:10.1080/13803610802470425 · Cited by 81
“Research on the influence of anxiety or low self-efficacy on student achievement has consistently demonstrated that student anxiety causes poor achievement and is related to students’ fears of negative evaluations and to student defensiveness (Giota, 2006; Hembree, 1988).”
BackgroundHow Does Exam Anxiety Affect the Performance of University Students
Trifoni, A., & Shahini, M. (2011) · Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences · Cited by 80
The role of anxiety and working memory in gender differences in mathematics.
Ganley, C. M., & Vasilyeva, M. (2013) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034099 · Cited by 91
Gogol, K., Brunner, M., Martin, R., Preckel, F., & Goetz, T. (2016) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.11.003 · Cited by 97
“Strong empirical evidence is available with regard to the rela tions between academic anxiety and other important student char acteristics such as academic performance (Hembree, 1988; Hembree, 1990; Ma, 1999; Seipp, 1991) or socio affective variables such as subjective well being and psychological health (Diener, 1984…”
BackgroundTeachers’ use of fear appeals in the Mathematics classroom: Worrying or motivating students?
Putwain, D. W., & Symes, W. (2010) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/2044-8279.002005 · Cited by 108
“Meta-analytic data suggest that test anxiety increases throughout childhood reaching a peak in early adolescence and declines gradually towards the end of compulsory schooling (Hembree, 1988).”
BackgroundEnhancing Elementary Students' Motivation to Read and Write: A Classroom Intervention Study
Miller, S. D., & Meece, J. L. (1997) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.1997.10544585 · Cited by 79
Vispoel, W. P., Rocklin, T., & Wang, T. (1994) · Applied Measurement in Education · doi:10.1207/s15324818ame0701_5 · Cited by 79
Brumariu, L. E., Waslin, S. M., Gastelle, M., Kochendorfer, L. B., & Kerns, K. A. (2022) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579422000323 · Cited by 103
Test anxiety, perceived test difficulty, and test performance: temporal patterns of their effects
Hong, E. (1999) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s1041-6080(99)80012-0 · Cited by 84
Medical student use of Facebook to support preparation for anatomy assessments
Pickering, J. D., & Bickerdike, S. (2016) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.1663 · Cited by 78
Differentiating anxiety and depression: the State-Trait Anxiety-Depression Inventory
Renner, K., Höck, M., Bergner-Köther, R., & Laux, L. (2016) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2016.1266306 · Cited by 93
“Indeed, thewell-established debilitating influence of anxiety on performance is primarily due to worry (Eysenck, 1992; Hembree, 1988; Seipp, 1991; Zeidner, 1998).”
BackgroundEspinosa, T., Miller, K., Araújo, I. S., & Mazur, E. (2019) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.15.010132 · Cited by 77
“For example, research on test anxiety has shown female students report significantly higher levels of test anxiety in math and physics than male students [26,27].”
BackgroundThird through Sixth Graders' Perceptions of High-Stakes Testing
Triplett, C. F., & Barksdale, M. A. (2005) · Journal of Literacy Research · doi:10.1207/s15548430jlr3702_5 · Cited by 77
“Research into test anxiety (Hembree, 1988; Pintrich & DeGroot, 1990) reveals that test anxiety affects testing performance and overall self-esteem.”
BackgroundFonteyne, L., Duyck, W., & Fruyt, F. D. (2017) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2017.05.003 · Cited by 96
“On the other hand, numerous studies have supported that test anxiety does have a detrimental effect on performance (see for example Byron & Khazanchi, 2011; Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007; Hembree, 1988; Hill &Wigfield, 1984).”
BackgroundTest anxiety and self-esteem in senior high school students: a cross-sectional study
Sarı, S. A., Bilek, G., & Çelik, E. (2017) · Nordic Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/08039488.2017.1389986 · Cited by 95
“It also deduces self-confidence and causes loss of motivation [4,5].”
BackgroundAvoidant coping: A mediator of maladaptive perfectionism and test anxiety
Weiner, B. A., & Carton, J. S. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.009 · Cited by 90
“prevalent mental health conditions in the United States (Barlow, 2002; Hembree, 1988).”
BackgroundMethodIndividual differences in motivation: Traits and self-regulatory skills.
Kanfer, R., & Heggestad, E. D. (2004) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10315-013 · Cited by 75
Multidimensional Perfectionism and Test Anxiety: a Meta-analytic Review of Two Decades of Research
Burcaş, S., & Creţu, R. Z. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09531-3 · Cited by 74
Ferreira, É. D. M. R., Pinto, R. Z., Arantes, P. M. M., Vieira, É. L. M., Teixeira, A. L., Ferreira, F. R., & Vaz, D. V. (2020) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-020-02202-5 · Cited by 95
“Excessive stress can interfere with the demonstration of actual competence and so interfere with OSCE validity [18, 19].”
BackgroundThe study of non-cognitive attributes in education: proposing the mental toughness framework
McGeown, S. P., Clair‐Thompson, H. S., & Clough, P. (2015) · Educational Review · doi:10.1080/00131911.2015.1008408 · Cited by 86
“In a comprehensive meta-analysis examining the correlates, causes, effects and treatments of test anxiety, Hembree (1988) noted that although test anxiety was low among young students (Grades 3 and below; i.e. aged 8–9 and below), its prevalence rises throughout primary school and into secondary…”
BackgroundMath anxiety—contributing school and individual level factors
Radišić, J., Videnović, M. P., & Baucal, A. (2014) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-014-0224-7 · Cited by 95
A research for identifying study anxiety sources among university students
Vitasari, P., Wahab, M. N. A., Othman, A., & Awang, M. G. (2010) · International Education Studies · doi:10.5539/ies.v3n2p189 · Cited by 74
“High level anxiety is more closely associated with lowered performance in low-ability students than in high-ability counterparts (Hembree, 1998).”
BackgroundSung, Y., Chao, T.-Y., & Tseng, F.-L. (2016) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.07.001 · Cited by 81
The Efficacy of Psychological, Educational, and Behavioral Treatment
Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315089256-4 · Cited by 74
Students’ Perceptions of Language Anxiety in Speaking Classes
Kayaoğlu, M. N., & Sağlamel, H. (2013) · Journal of History Culture and Art Research · doi:10.7596/taksad.v2i2.245 · Cited by 102
Metadata
- Authors
- Hembree, R.
- Affiliations
- Adrian College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hembree, Ray
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 1988-03
- Volume
- 58
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 47-77
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- OpenAlex
- W2118425840
- Cited by
- 1,723
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 77 · 2021: 90 · 2020: 121 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 74 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 79 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 90
- FWCI
- 11.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Student Stress and Coping
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- test anxiety, academic performance, self-esteem, fear of negative evaluation, defensiveness, anxiety, ability, gender differences, grade level, grade point average
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