The DOI matches its Crossref record; 26 of the 26 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Correlates, Causes, Effects, and Treatment of Test Anxiety
Abstract
Results of 562 studies were integrated by meta-analysis to show the nature, effects, and treatment of academic test anxiety. Effect sizes were computed through the method invented by Glass ( Glass, McGaw, & Smith, 1981 ). Correlations and effect-size groups were tested for consistency and significance with inferential statistics by Hedges and Olkin (1985) . Test anxiety (TA) causes poor performance. It relates inversely to students’ self-esteem and directly to their fears of negative evaluation, defensiveness, and other forms of anxiety. Conditions (causes) giving rise to differential TA levels include ability, gender, and school grade level. A variety of treatments are effective in reducing test anxiety. Contrary to prior perceptions, improved test performance and grade point average (GPA) consistently accompany TA reduction.
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In the citing paper
“Anxious individuals tend to experience anxiety in testing situations (39)”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“Meta-analyses have consistently shown that test anxiety occurs at higher levels in women than in men (Hembree, 1988;von der Embse et al., 2018).”
From Impacts of Standards-Based Grading on Students’ Mindset and Test Anxiety (2022) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Hancock (2001) and Hembree (1988) reported that negative cognitions related to examinations, when such students underestimate their own abilities, or overestimation of the consequences related to their failure, are often accompanied by higher anxiety levels and poor performance.”
From Examining perceptions of academic stress and its sources among university students: The Perception of Academic Stress Scale (2015) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Like low motivation, test anxiety can significantly impair performance (Hembree [1988]).”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Hembree [1988]
In the citing paper
“It is also known that test anxiety that emerges in evaluation environments has a negative effect on one ' s personal development, academic performance, and consequently career and business life (Hembree, 1988; McDonald, 2001; Putwain & Best, 2011; Sarason & Sarason, 1990; Topp, 1989; Y ı ld ı r ı m & Ergene, 2003).”
From Reducing Test Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (2024) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Specific to high-stakes test situations, scholars argue that mathematics anxiety seems to be an aspect of “situational specific psychological distress” rather than an aspect of “mathematics” (Hembree, 1988).”
From The influences of mindfulness on high-stakes mathematics test achievement of middle school students (2023) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“A comprehensive review found converging evidence of higher mathematics achievement usually accompanies a reduction in mathematics anxiety (Hembree, 1988).”
From The influences of mindfulness on high-stakes mathematics test achievement of middle school students (2023) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
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“Test taking anxiety causes poor academic performance (Hembree, 1988; Zeidner, 1998; Cassady and Johnson, 2002), and women tend to experience higher levels Game-based assessments may offer a way to combat test anxiety, and its adverse effect on performance.”
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“The negative correlation between test anxiety and academic performance has been found in many domains (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Hembree, 1988; Seipp, 1991).”
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“Test anxiety occurs in general testing or evaluative situations (Hembree, 1988), with high levels negatively affecting performance across a variety of tasks including neuropsychological tests (Chapell et al.”
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“The test anxiety literature (e.g., Blair, O’Neil, & Price, 1999; Hembree 1988) makes a further distinction of worry and emotionality.”
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“A meta-analysis study by Hembree, 1988 showed that a high level of exam anxiety in females might not lead to poor performance (Hembree, 1988).”
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“According to Hembree (1988), more than 20% of college students experience this problem with tension or uneasiness occurring before, during or after an exam.”
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“Additional important influences on students’ experience of TA identified in the literature are students’ academic selfconcept (e.g., Hembree, 1988; Putwain, Woods, & Symes, 2010; Zeidner 1998, 2007, 2014) and achievement goals (AGs).”
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“A similar conclusion regarding gender differences has been observed by other researchers (Hembree, 1988; Watson, 1988; Zeidner, 1991).”
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Validation of the Persian Translation of the Cognitive Test Anxiety Scale
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“…test anxiety construct consistently identified the emotionality component to include primarily physiological responses to anxiety-producing evaluative events, which included elevated heart rate, headaches, dizziness, and feelings of panic (e.g., Deffenbacher, 1980; Hembree, 1988; Sarason, 1984).”
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“In agreement with previous research (Hembree, 1988; Hembree, 1990), positive correlations were found between all of them, in both their global and their subscale scores.”
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“Finally, Hembree (1988) and Hembree (1990) provide evidence that test anxiety can seriously impair test performance.”
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“The findings reported on gender differences in the present study are in agreement with results reported in the test anxiety literature (Everson et al., 1991; Hembree, 1988; Lowe & Lee, 2008; Seipp & Schwarzer, 1996).”
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“Evaluative situations create test anxiety, which is detrimental for performance (Hembree, 1988).”
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BackgroundResultInfluentialThe Test Anxiety Measure for Adolescents (TAMA)
Lowe, P. A. (2014) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282913520595 · Cited by 25
“73) between the TAMA Physiological Hyperarousal and Worry scores is comparable in magnitude to the correlation reported between the Emotionality and Worry scores in other studies with other test anxiety measures (Everson, Millsap, & Rodriguez, 1991; Hembree, 1988), and the high correlation (r = .”
BackgroundResultEstrategias de aprendizaje y ansiedad ante los exámenes en estudiantes universitarios
Furlán, L. A., Sánchez-Rosas, J., Heredia, D., Piemontesi, S. E., & Ilbelle, A. (2009) · Pensamiento Psicológico · doi:10.13140/2.1.4227.8400 · Cited by 21
Khalifian, N., Stites, M. C., & Laszlo, S. (2015) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12329 · Cited by 21
“…reading assessments, as © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd children who are having trouble with reading often know that they are having trouble with reading, and giving them an obvious reading test is likely to induce task anxiety that may reduce their performance (e.g. Hembree, 1988; Stevens, 2001).”
Predicting Community College and University Student Success
Heller, M. L., & Cassady, J. C. (2015) · Journal of College Student Retention Research Theory & Practice · doi:10.1177/1521025115611130 · Cited by 21
“The body of literature to date has focused primarily on test anxiety in student learners, finding it to be a pervasive issue among students that profoundly affects academic achievement (Crede & Kuncel, 2008; Hembree, 1988; Seipp, 1991).”
BackgroundPena, M., & Losada, L. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01423 · Cited by 24
“Hembree (1988) examined the relationship between TA and others variables.”
BackgroundHuntley, C. D., Young, B., Smith, C. T., Jha, V., & Fisher, P. (2020) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-00662-y · Cited by 23
“Meta-analyses consistently find TA is associated with poorer academic performance (Hembree 1988; Seipp 1991; von der Embse et al. 2018).”
BackgroundFeasibility of a Virtual Reality Program in Managing Test Anxiety: A Pilot Study
Kwon, J. H., Hong, N., Kim, K. K., Heo, J., Kim, J., & Kim, E. J. (2020) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2019.0651 · Cited by 23
Barber, A. T., Klauda, S. L., & Wang, W. (2021) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.398 · Cited by 22
Immekus, J. C., Jeong, T.-S., & Yoo, J. (2022) · Large-scale Assessments in Education · doi:10.1186/s40536-022-00150-8 · Cited by 18
“Test anxiety is an important educational construct that has received considerable attention in the research literature over the past 70 years (e.g., Hembree, 1988; Mandler & Sarason, 1952; Spielberger et al., 1976; Zeidner, 2014).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe Effect of Academic Stress and Mental Anxiety among the Students of Khulna University
Rabbi, M. F., & Islam, M. S. (2024) · Edukasiana Jurnal Inovasi Pendidikan · doi:10.56916/ejip.v3i3.723 · Cited by 37
“Hembree (1988) demonstrated that test anxiety has a detrimental effect on students' academic performance and self-esteem.”
BackgroundIntegrating ICT into Higher Education: A Study of Onsite vs Online Students' Perceptions
Fillion, G., Limayem, M., Laferrière, T., & Mantha, R. W. (2007) · IRIS · Cited by 20
Alleviating Test Anxiety for Students of Advanced Reading Comprehension
Bensoussan, M. (2012) · RELC Journal · doi:10.1177/0033688212449511 · Cited by 25
“Cognitive modification or study counseling combined with desensitization seemed more likely to reduce test anxiety and raise performance than only desensitization and other behavioral techniques (Hembree, 1988: 49).”
BackgroundInfluentialSoheili, F., Alizadeh, H., Murphy, J. M., Bajestani, H. S., & Ferguson, E. D. (2015) · The Journal of Individual Psychology · doi:10.1353/jip.2015.0037 · Cited by 20
Bergold, S., & Steinmayr, R. (2016) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.06.005 · Cited by 24
A psychometric study of the Test Anxiety Scale for Children in a Spanish sample
Ferrando, P. J., Varea, M. D., & Lorenzo‐Seva, U. (1999) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(98)00227-x · Cited by 20
Blair, D., O’Neil, H. F., & Price, D. J. (1999) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0747-5632(99)00034-5 · Cited by 20
Giota, J. (2006) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313830600823803 · Cited by 23
“On the basis of a meta-analysis of 562 studies, in which test anxiety was related to academic achievement, Hembree (1988)”
BackgroundGender differences in test anxiety
Fiore, A. M. J. (2003) · doi:10.33915/etd.844 · Cited by 20
Myers, S. J., Davis, S. D., & Chan, J. C. K. (2021) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-021-00309-x · Cited by 28
“And like other forms for anxiety, test anxiety can be reduced via systematic desensitization and cognitive behavioral therapy (Hembree, 1988).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialAwidi, I. T., & Klutsey, J. Q. (2024) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-024-09751-4 · Cited by 34
“Conversely, lack of confidence is marked by feelings of anxiety and fear, resulting in low expectations, excessive worry over evaluation and low self-worth (Hembree, 1988; Khan & Madden, 2018) which can thus impact performance.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Hembree, R.
- Affiliations
- Adrian College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hembree, Ray
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 1988-03
- Volume
- 58
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 47-77
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- OpenAlex
- W2118425840
- Cited by
- 1,723
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 77 · 2021: 90 · 2020: 121 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 74 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 79 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 90
- FWCI
- 11.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Student Stress and Coping
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- test anxiety, academic performance, self-esteem, fear of negative evaluation, defensiveness, anxiety, ability, gender differences, grade level, grade point average
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