The DOI matches its Crossref record; 26 of the 26 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Correlates, Causes, Effects, and Treatment of Test Anxiety
Abstract
Results of 562 studies were integrated by meta-analysis to show the nature, effects, and treatment of academic test anxiety. Effect sizes were computed through the method invented by Glass ( Glass, McGaw, & Smith, 1981 ). Correlations and effect-size groups were tested for consistency and significance with inferential statistics by Hedges and Olkin (1985) . Test anxiety (TA) causes poor performance. It relates inversely to students’ self-esteem and directly to their fears of negative evaluation, defensiveness, and other forms of anxiety. Conditions (causes) giving rise to differential TA levels include ability, gender, and school grade level. A variety of treatments are effective in reducing test anxiety. Contrary to prior perceptions, improved test performance and grade point average (GPA) consistently accompany TA reduction.
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In the citing paper
“Anxious individuals tend to experience anxiety in testing situations (39)”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“Meta-analyses have consistently shown that test anxiety occurs at higher levels in women than in men (Hembree, 1988;von der Embse et al., 2018).”
From Impacts of Standards-Based Grading on Students’ Mindset and Test Anxiety (2022) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Hancock (2001) and Hembree (1988) reported that negative cognitions related to examinations, when such students underestimate their own abilities, or overestimation of the consequences related to their failure, are often accompanied by higher anxiety levels and poor performance.”
From Examining perceptions of academic stress and its sources among university students: The Perception of Academic Stress Scale (2015) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Like low motivation, test anxiety can significantly impair performance (Hembree [1988]).”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Hembree [1988]
In the citing paper
“It is also known that test anxiety that emerges in evaluation environments has a negative effect on one ' s personal development, academic performance, and consequently career and business life (Hembree, 1988; McDonald, 2001; Putwain & Best, 2011; Sarason & Sarason, 1990; Topp, 1989; Y ı ld ı r ı m & Ergene, 2003).”
From Reducing Test Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (2024) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Specific to high-stakes test situations, scholars argue that mathematics anxiety seems to be an aspect of “situational specific psychological distress” rather than an aspect of “mathematics” (Hembree, 1988).”
From The influences of mindfulness on high-stakes mathematics test achievement of middle school students (2023) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“A comprehensive review found converging evidence of higher mathematics achievement usually accompanies a reduction in mathematics anxiety (Hembree, 1988).”
From The influences of mindfulness on high-stakes mathematics test achievement of middle school students (2023) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
Citations
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“NFB for improving performance anxiety Fear of failure under stressful conditions is a common cause of performance anxiety, including test-related anxiety (Hembree 1988), and performance anxiety in sports (Tharawadeepimuk and Wongsawat 2017), music and acting (Mor et al. 1995).”
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“In a meta-analysis study of 562 research reports, Hembree (1988) found that significant inverse relationships between test anxiety and performance were reported at the grade three level and above.”
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“High levels of test anxiety are known to cause decrements in cognitive performance (Hembree, 1988).”
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“These results are especially interesting and important to consider in the context of school-related anxiety since many children have habitual anxiety to academic test taking, especially in the context of mathematics, which has been associated with poorer academic performance (Hembree, 1988).”
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Priming Competence Diminishes the Link Between Cognitive Test Anxiety and Test Performance
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“In fact, Hembree (1988) meta-analyzed the findings of 154 studies of test anxiety and gender, and found strong evidence that females experience higher levels of anxiety than males (mean effect size 5 .29).”
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“Meta-analytic reviews have clearly established that such ‘test anxiety’ is negatively correlated with attainment in higher education (e.g. Hembree 1988; Richardson, Abraham, and Bond 2012).”
BackgroundCan Test Anxiety Interventions Alleviate a Gender Gap in an Undergraduate STEM Course?
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“Although the biological and cultural basis of these gendered differences is not well understood, the impact of stress and anxiety affecting student performance is well documented (Hembree, 1988; Zeidner and Schleyer, 1999; Cassady, 2004; Goetz et al. , 2013).”
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“This relation is in accordance with the correlation (r = -.30) between test anxiety and school performance (Hembree, 1988, 1990; Ma, 1999).”
ResultPapageorgi, I. (2020) · Musicae Scientiae · doi:10.1177/1029864920923128 · Cited by 68
“For both groups, however, they decreased between the ages of 18 and 19, perhaps because of attrition (Hembree, 1988), but also perhaps because older participants were more likely to report their levels of anxiety with increased accuracy and reliability, as research on self-reported test anxiety has shown (Zeidner, 199…”
ResultDifferential Effects of Question Formats in Math Assessment on Metacognition and Affect
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“While earlier studies showed that girls have higher levels of test anxiety than boys (Hembree, 1988; Bandalos et al., 1995), recent studies showed that there are no statistically significant gender differences in terms of test anxiety, the academic performance being similar (Núñez-Peña et al.,…”
ResultRaufelder, D., Hoferichter, F., Ringeisen, T., Regner, N., & Jacke, C. (2015) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-015-0182-y · Cited by 85
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“Research has overwhelmingly indicated that this cognitive facet of test anxiety impairs student performance (Deffenbacher, 1978; Hembree, 1988; Wine, 1971; Zeidner, 1990) because self-doubt and fear of the consequences of failing interfere with task-relevant responses during test preparations or the test-taking proces…”
BackgroundLowe, P. A., & Lee, S. W. (2007) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282907303773 · Cited by 72
“Some studies have shown that a relationship exists between gender and type of test anxiety, with male participants having more facilitating test anxiety than female participants, and female participants having more debilitating test anxiety than male participants (Couch et al., 1983; Hembree, 1988).”
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Validation of the State Version of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory in a University Sample
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“Test anxiety is a well-documented phenomenon that influences the academic performance of learners at all educational levels (Cassady & Johnson, 2002; Hembree, 1988; von der Embse et al., 2018).”
BackgroundMusic Performance Anxiety: Origins, Phenomenology, Assessment and Treatment
Kenny, D. T. (2006) · Context · Cited by 65
Test-Taking Strategies of High and Low Mathematics Achievers
Hong, E., Sas, M., & Sas, J. C. (2006) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.3200/joer.99.3.144-155 · Cited by 69
“Students who perceive a test as difficult are likely to have higher test anxiety than those who do not have that perception (Hembree, 1988; Hong & Karstensson, 2002).”
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Test-Taking Skills in College Students With and Without ADHD
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“In a meta-analysis, Hembree (1988) reviewed more than 500 studies on text anxiety, finding that it was consistently associated with lower performance on tests, as well as with lower GPAs and standardized test scores (d = 0.52).”
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“Evidence of negative relations between anxiety and achievement has been studied in several researches to find the processes which are likely to be involved in such a negative relation (Blankstein, Toner & Flett, 1989; Cassady & Johnson, 2002; Hembree, 1988; Swain and Burnaby, 1976).”
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A Motivational Analysis of Academic Life in College
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InfluentialDeterminants of Academic Performance of University Students
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“A meta-analytic study based on around 9,000 participants reported a substantial inverse correlation between self-esteem and TA (Hembree, 1988), a conclusion supported by many recent studies (e.g., Hojat, Callahan, & Gonnella, 2004; O. Peleg, 2009; Thomas & Gadbois, 2007; Wachelka & Katz, 1999).”
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“Several papers (Bandalos, Yates & Thorndike-Christ, 1995; Hembree, 1988; Volkmer & Feather, 1991; Zeidner, 1990) have conducted stress-related research and found that female subjects reported higher level of anxiety than male subjects.”
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Liu, H., Shi, Y., Auden, E., & Rozelle, S. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15102087 · Cited by 63
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InfluentialA randomised placebo-controlled trial of a self-help Internet-based intervention for test anxiety
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“Those with high test anxiety perform more poorly than others (Hembree, 1988) but it is not clear if this is the cause or effect of test anxiety (Cassady & Johnson, 2002; Hembree, 1988; Seipp, 1991).”
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“Hembree (1990) noted that anxiety is an omnibus construct under whose rubric resort a host of subconstructs that relate to discrete situations, one of the most prominent of which is mathematics anxiety.”
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Zeidner, M., & Schleyer, E. J. (1999) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615809908248328 · Cited by 59
Silva, M. A., Dorso, E., Azhar, A., & Renk, K. (2007) · Journal of College Student Retention Research Theory & Practice · doi:10.2190/cs.9.2.b · Cited by 65
“Cognitive components of anxiety, such as worry, have been associated with poor academic performance (Hembree, 1988; Tobias, 1985).”
BackgroundWeems, C. F., Scott, B. G., Graham, R. A., Banks, D. M., Russell, J. D., Taylor, L. K., Cannon, M. F., Varela, R. E., Scheeringa, M. S., Perry, A. M., et al. (2014) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-014-0491-1 · Cited by 64
Nelson, D. W., & Knight, A. E. (2010) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00595.x · Cited by 61
Challenging high-ability students
Scager, K., Akkerman, S. F., Pilot, A., & Wubbels, T. (2012) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2012.743117 · Cited by 69
“The findings of these studies show that worry is associated not only with loss of motivation, but also with low performance (Hembree 1988, 1990; Pajares and Urdan 1996).”
BackgroundMethodBuckley, S., Reid, K., Goos, M., Lipp, O. V., & Thomson, S. (2016) · Australian Journal of Education · doi:10.1177/0004944116653000 · Cited by 78
“…maladaptive facilitators of trait MA, and negative thoughts or worry (e.g. “I’m never going to understand this”) by drawing on principles from cognitive behaviour therapy and schema therapy that are used to treat clinical anxiety (including phobias) may be beneficial (Gregor, 2005; Hembree, 1988).”
BackgroundUsing factor mixture modeling to identify dimensions of cognitive test anxiety
Cassady, J. C., & Finch, W. H. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.06.002 · Cited by 64
Engelhard, G. (1990) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1990.10543224 · Cited by 57
McIlroy, D. (2000) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709900157949 · Cited by 61
“It is hypothesised that test anxiety should correlate negatively with self-efcacy and locus of control (Hembree, 1988).”
BackgroundInfluentialDifferential stability of individual differences in state and trait test anxiety
Hong, E. (1998) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s1041-6080(99)80142-3 · Cited by 56
Volitional strategies and future time perspective: embracing the complexity of dynamic interactions
Husman, J. E., McCann, E. J., & Crowson, H. M. (2000) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/s0883-0355(00)00050-1 · Cited by 58
Lowe, P. A., Grumbein, M. J., & Raad, J. M. (2011) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282910395894 · Cited by 59
“The worry component involves students’ concerns about their performance on tests and the emotionality component (now called physiological hyperarousal; Joiner et al., 1999) is the autonomic reactions students experience in test situations. According to Liebert and Morris (1967), testanxious students may have excessive…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialKavakçı, Ö., Semız, M., Kartal, A., Dikici, A., & Kuğu, N. (2014) · Dusunen Adam The Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences · doi:10.5350/dajpn2014270403 · Cited by 56
“Many studies have reported an association between test anxiety and anxiety disorders (8,9).”
BackgroundBoysen, G. A. (2017) · Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology · doi:10.1037/stl0000084 · Cited by 61
“Well-known academic examples of detrimental effect of anxiety on performance include test anxiety (Chapell et al., 2005; Hembree, 1988), math anxiety (Keeley, Zayac, & Correia, 2008), and stereotype threat (Schmader, 2010).”
BackgroundIntroduction to the special issue: Emotional states, attention, and working memory
Derakshan, N., & Eysenck, M. W. (2010) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930903412120 · Cited by 67
“However, we remain of the opinion that Miyake et al.’s (2000) theoretical approach provides a solid foundation on which to build.”
Strategies for coping with test anxiety
Kondo, D. S. (1997) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615809708249301 · Cited by 55
Test anxiety and the curriculum: The subject matters
Everson, H. T., Tobias, S., Hartman, H. J., & Gourgey, A. F. (1993) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615809308249528 · Cited by 55
Henschel, S., & Roick, T. (2017) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2017.03.009 · Cited by 55
“For general test anxiety, Hembree (1988) and Schwarzer et al. (1989) provided evidence for this assumption in two metaanalyses, indicating that the cognitive component was stronger negatively (−0.31 ≤ r ≤ −0.25, p b 0.05) associated with test performance than was the affective component of test…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialModels of Personality and Affect for Education: A Review and Synthesis
Matthews, G., Zeidner, M., & Roberts, R. D. (2015) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203874790.ch8 · Cited by 54
Test anxiety: Is it associated with performance in high-stakes examinations?
Jerrim, J. (2023) · Oxford Review of Education · doi:10.1080/03054985.2022.2079616 · Cited by 60
“Their findings are however consistent with an earlier meta-analysis conducted by Hembree (1988), who concluded that ‘test anxiety causes poor performance’.”
BackgroundResultValidation of the Mathematics Motivation Questionnaire (MMQ) for secondary school students
Fiorella, L., Yoon, S. Y., Atit, K., Power, J., Panther, G., Sorby, S., Uttal, D. H., & Veurink, N. L. (2021) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-021-00307-x · Cited by 105
“One component of mathematics anxiety is mathematics test anxiety, or a negative emotional reaction to being evaluated in mathematics (Hembree, 1988; Kazelskis et al., 2000).”
BackgroundRelationship between anxiety and standardized patient test performance in the medicine clerkship
Reteguiz, J.-A. (2006) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00419.x · Cited by 54
Do examinations stakes moderate the test anxiety–examination performance relationship?
Putwain, D. W. (2008) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410701452264 · Cited by 64
“These difficulties may translate into underachievement (Hembree, 1988).”
Collaborative Testing: Evidence of Learning in a Controlled In-Class Study of Undergraduate Students
Gilley, B. H., & Clarkston, B. E. (2014) · The journal of college science teaching · doi:10.2505/4/jcst14_043_03_83 · Cited by 132
Putwain, D. W., & Pescod, M. (2017) · School Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1037/spq0000228 · Cited by 56
“High levels of test anxiety can interfere with academic achievement (Hembree, 1988) and contribute to poor student wellbeing (Steinmayr, Crede, McElvany, & Wirthwein, 2016).”
InfluentialMcIlroy, D., & Bunting, B. P. (2002) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1006/ceps.2001.1086 · Cited by 59
Re‐Visiting Intelligence–Personality Associations
von Stumm, S., Chamorro‐Premuzic, T., & Ackerman, P. L. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781444343120.ch8 · Cited by 57
Rajiah, K., & Saravanan, C. (2014) · American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education · doi:10.5688/ajpe789163 · Cited by 53
Metadata
- Authors
- Hembree, R.
- Affiliations
- Adrian College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hembree, Ray
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 1988-03
- Volume
- 58
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 47-77
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- OpenAlex
- W2118425840
- Cited by
- 1,723
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 77 · 2021: 90 · 2020: 121 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 74 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 79 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 90
- FWCI
- 11.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Student Stress and Coping
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- test anxiety, academic performance, self-esteem, fear of negative evaluation, defensiveness, anxiety, ability, gender differences, grade level, grade point average
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