The DOI matches its Crossref record; 26 of the 26 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Correlates, Causes, Effects, and Treatment of Test Anxiety
Abstract
Results of 562 studies were integrated by meta-analysis to show the nature, effects, and treatment of academic test anxiety. Effect sizes were computed through the method invented by Glass ( Glass, McGaw, & Smith, 1981 ). Correlations and effect-size groups were tested for consistency and significance with inferential statistics by Hedges and Olkin (1985) . Test anxiety (TA) causes poor performance. It relates inversely to students’ self-esteem and directly to their fears of negative evaluation, defensiveness, and other forms of anxiety. Conditions (causes) giving rise to differential TA levels include ability, gender, and school grade level. A variety of treatments are effective in reducing test anxiety. Contrary to prior perceptions, improved test performance and grade point average (GPA) consistently accompany TA reduction.
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In the citing paper
“Anxious individuals tend to experience anxiety in testing situations (39)”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“Meta-analyses have consistently shown that test anxiety occurs at higher levels in women than in men (Hembree, 1988;von der Embse et al., 2018).”
From Impacts of Standards-Based Grading on Students’ Mindset and Test Anxiety (2022) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Hancock (2001) and Hembree (1988) reported that negative cognitions related to examinations, when such students underestimate their own abilities, or overestimation of the consequences related to their failure, are often accompanied by higher anxiety levels and poor performance.”
From Examining perceptions of academic stress and its sources among university students: The Perception of Academic Stress Scale (2015) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Like low motivation, test anxiety can significantly impair performance (Hembree [1988]).”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Hembree [1988]
In the citing paper
“It is also known that test anxiety that emerges in evaluation environments has a negative effect on one ' s personal development, academic performance, and consequently career and business life (Hembree, 1988; McDonald, 2001; Putwain & Best, 2011; Sarason & Sarason, 1990; Topp, 1989; Y ı ld ı r ı m & Ergene, 2003).”
From Reducing Test Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (2024) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Specific to high-stakes test situations, scholars argue that mathematics anxiety seems to be an aspect of “situational specific psychological distress” rather than an aspect of “mathematics” (Hembree, 1988).”
From The influences of mindfulness on high-stakes mathematics test achievement of middle school students (2023) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“A comprehensive review found converging evidence of higher mathematics achievement usually accompanies a reduction in mathematics anxiety (Hembree, 1988).”
From The influences of mindfulness on high-stakes mathematics test achievement of middle school students (2023) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
Citations
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BackgroundThe Relationship Between Test Anxiety and Seriousness of Errors in Algebra
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“…comprehensive studies in the field of test anxiety research conclude that self-esteem and test anxiety are inversely and moderately associated (Embse et al., 2018; Hembree, 1988), which suggests that evaluative situations may be more threatening for those with low self-esteem than for their peers.”
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Impact of social comparison on perceived online academic futility: A perspective from parents
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“A study on students’ emotions and academic performance shows that students’ anxiety has a negative predictive effect on academic performance, and anxiety is significantly negatively correlated with self-efficacy (Daniels et al., 2009; Hembree, 1988).”
BackgroundAnalysis of Studies about Academic Anxiety: A Thematic Review
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“…causal relationship, since most authors consider poor results to be the consequence of anxiety (Dutke & Stroeber, 2001; Gardner & Maclntyre, 1993; Hembree, 1988; Horwitz et al., 1986; Salehi & Marefat, 2014), but others (Argaman & Abu-Rabia, 2002; Sparks & Ganschow, 1991), have postulated that…”
BackgroundResultZacharopoulos, G., Sella, F., Kadosh, K. C., Emir, U. E., & Kadosh, R. C. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab412 · Cited by 9
“Moreover, the negative consequences of TA extend beyond the academic setting, including fear of negative evaluation, low selfesteem, blame assignment, and subsequent risk for anxiety and depression (Hembree 1988; Leadbeater et al. 2012).”
BackgroundEvolutionary Personality Psychology
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Realism and operationism in psychiatric diagnosis
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“test anxiety has a negative effect on test performance (Hembree, 1988) such that a”
BackgroundEffects of Massed versus Distributed Practice of Test Taking on Achievement and Test Anxiety
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“These coefficients are of the magnitude reported in meta-analyses of test anxiety research (Hembree, 1988; Seipp, 1991).”
Hishinuma, E. S., Foster, J. E., Miyamoto, R. H., Nishimura, S. T., Andrade, N. N., Nahulu, L. B., Goebert, D. A., Yuen, N. Y. C., Makini, G. K., Kim, S. P., et al. (2001) · School Psychology International · doi:10.1177/0143034301223007 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- Hembree, R.
- Affiliations
- Adrian College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hembree, Ray
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 1988-03
- Volume
- 58
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 47-77
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- OpenAlex
- W2118425840
- Cited by
- 1,723
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 77 · 2021: 90 · 2020: 121 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 74 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 79 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 90
- FWCI
- 11.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Student Stress and Coping
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- test anxiety, academic performance, self-esteem, fear of negative evaluation, defensiveness, anxiety, ability, gender differences, grade level, grade point average
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