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Digital Games, Design, and Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Open accessAbstract
In this meta-analysis, we systematically reviewed research on digital games and learning for K–16 students. We synthesized comparisons of game versus nongame conditions (i.e., media comparisons) and comparisons of augmented games versus standard game designs (i.e., value-added comparisons). We used random-effects meta-regression models with robust variance estimates to summarize overall effects and explore potential moderator effects. Results from media comparisons indicated that digital games significantly enhanced student learning relative to nongame conditions ([Formula: see text] = 0.33, 95% confidence interval [0.19, 0.48], k = 57, n = 209). Results from value-added comparisons indicated significant learning benefits associated with augmented game designs ([Formula: see text] = 0.34, 95% confidence interval [0.17, 0.51], k = 20, n = 40). Moderator analyses demonstrated that effects varied across various game mechanics characteristics, visual and narrative characteristics, and research quality characteristics. Taken together, the results highlight the affordances of games for learning as well as the key role of design beyond medium.
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![Figure 2. Scatter plot of pretest-adjusted posttest effect sizes and overall contextualization aggregate score for digital game versus nongame conditions (media comparisons). Note. Each effect size shown proportionate to its weight in the meta-analysis. Slope coefficient from meta-regression with robust variance estimation b = −0.07 (p = .01, 95% CI [−0.12, −0.01]).](/paper-figures/308463f1df4b46ffa9b948a3ff86b75a/digital-games-design-and-learning-a-systematic-review-and-meta-analysis-figure-2.jpg)
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“Inclusion of game fiction is closely related to the use of narrative anchors and has been shown to be effective for learning as it situates and anchors learning in a context (Clark et al. 2016) and can further serve as a cognitive framework for problem solving (Dickey 2006).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“In addition, the results of the summary effect analyses were similar to results from meta-analyses conducted in the context of games (see Clark et al. 2016;Wouters et al. 2013), indicating that the power of games can be transferred to non-game contexts by using game design elements.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“This result for behavioral learning outcomes is in line with evidence from the context of games, showing that combinations of competition and collaboration in games are promising for learning (Clark et al. 2016).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“Clark et al. (2016) included competition in their meta-analysis on digital games and found that combinations of competition and collaboration as well as single-player games without competitive elements can outperform games with mere competition.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
In the citing paper
“The reviews have also documented the effects on students' learning outcomes and the key role of gamified designs (Alsawaier, 2018;Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016).”
From Towards a motivational design? Connecting gamification user types and online learning activities (2020) · cites this paper as Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016
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BackgroundResultDrawing the big picture of games in education: A topic modeling-based review of past 55 years
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“However, researchers state that a more detailed investigation with variations of individual facets is needed to validate different design approaches (Clark et al., 2016; Ke, 2016; Nebel, 2017).”
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“There is growing evidence to suggest that game-based learning environments can benefit learning, but the relationship between learning and game design is complex [3, 7, 8].”
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“Digital games for learning have been recognized as a promising tool for education and training [1].”
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“However, there is also consensus that more studies in terms of large randomized control trials are necessary to better understand underlying working mechanisms in game-based learning tasks and to draw a meaningful conclusion [2, 3].”
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Self-citationEffects of spaced versus massed training in function learning.
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“…educational resources and an introduction of pedagogical objects in platforms widely used by users, such as educational games (Hainey et al., 2016; Clark et al., 2016; Caballero-Hernández et al., 2017), virtual reality and virtual laboratories (Jong et al., 2013; Heradio et al., 2016; Potkonjak…”
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“Serious games have been found to contribute to changes in brain plasticity and cognitive development, with long-lasting behavioral changes that extend to outside of the game environment (Anderson & Kirkorian, 2015; Anguera et al., 2013; Clark et al., 2016; Kühn et al., 2014; Li & Tsai, 2013).”
BackgroundMethod“A review of research on the application of digital games in foreign language education,”
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Adaptive scaffolding and engagement in digital game-based learning
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Gamifying language education: the impact of digital game-based learning on Chinese EFL learners
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“…shows a positive correlation between enjoyment and various desirable learning outcomes in DGBL contexts, including increased engagement, willingness to communicate, and improved academic performance (Alexiou and Schippers 2018; Chen 2023; Clark et al. 2016; Fathi et al. 2024; Yeh et al. 2017).”
Gamifying a Simulation: Do a Game Goal, Choice, Points, and Praise Enhance Learning?
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BackgroundResultFlow Experience and Situational Interest in Game-Based Learning: Cousins or Identical Twins
Kiili, K. J. M., Lindstedt, A., Koskinen, A., Halme, H., Ninaus, M., & McMullen, J. A. (2021) · International Journal of Serious Games · doi:10.17083/ijsg.v8i3.462 · Cited by 42
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Seriously Considering Design in Educational Games
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From virtual to participatory learning with technology during COVID-19
Squire, K. D. (2021) · E-Learning and Digital Media · doi:10.1177/20427530211022926 · Cited by 40
“In Surge , players manipulate variables to develop intuitive understandings of physics which then become formalized through game play (Clark et al., 2016a).”
BackgroundAssessment for Learning in Immersive Environments
Shute, V. J., Rahimi, S., & Emihovich, B. (2017) · Smart computing and intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-5490-7_5 · Cited by 44
“According to 210 Csikszentmihalyi (1990), such personalized support permits learners to maintain the 211 state of flow (note: adaptivity is further discussed in the next section).”
BackgroundDigital games as sources for science analogies: Learning about energy through play
Martin, W. B., Silander, M., & Rutter, S. (2018) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.11.002 · Cited by 45
Kuba, R., Rahimi, S., Smith, G. L., Shute, V. J., & Dai, C. (2021) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-021-09994-3 · Cited by 48
Minecraft in Education Benefits Learning and Social Engagement
Alawajee, O., & Delafield‐Butt, J. T. (2021) · International Journal of Game-Based Learning · doi:10.4018/ijgbl.2021100102 · Cited by 47
Ventouris, A., Panourgia, C., & Hodge, S. (2021) · International Journal of Educational Research Open · doi:10.1016/j.ijedro.2021.100081 · Cited by 76
Kacmaz, G., & Dubé, A. K. (2021) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2021.100428 · Cited by 55
Timing of learning supports in educational games can impact students’ outcomes
Rahimi, S., Shute, V. J., Fulwider, G. C., Bainbridge, K., Kuba, R., Yang, X., Smith, G. L., Baker, R. S., & D’Mello, S. K. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104600 · Cited by 43
“There is ample evidence that well-designed digital games can improve learning (e.g., Byun & Joung, 2018; Clark et al., 2016; Lei et al., 2022; Shute et al., 2020a; Tsai & Tsai, 2018, 2020).”
BackgroundEffects of a tablet game intervention on simple addition and subtraction fluency in first graders
van der Ven, F., Segers, E., Takashima, A., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.031 · Cited by 42
Particle in a Box: An Experiential Environment for Learning Introductory Quantum Mechanics
Anupam, A., Gupta, R., Naeemi, A., & JafariNaimi, N. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Education · doi:10.1109/te.2017.2727442 · Cited by 38
Effects of scripting on dialogues, motivation and learning outcomes in serious games
van der Meij, H., Veldkamp, S., & Leemkuil, H. (2019) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12851 · Cited by 38
“Gameplay should not be overscripted, because that would diminish motivation and gives players too little room for grounding and otherwise having a normal interaction (see Clark et al. , 2016; Dillenbourg & Jermann, 2007).”
BackgroundThe Design, Development, and Testing of Learning Supports for the Physics Playground Game
Shute, V. J., Smith, G. L., Kuba, R., Dai, C., Rahimi, S., Liu, Z., & Almond, R. G. (2020) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-020-00196-1 · Cited by 43
“Several principles of multimedia design (Mayer 2009; Mayer 2017), game design (Clark et al. 2016), and usability design (Norman 2013) guided our decisions about our learning supports.”
BackgroundHu, H., & Sperling, R. A. (2022) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2022.103876 · Cited by 42
Game-Based Learning experiences in primary mathematics education
Debrenti, E. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1331312 · Cited by 40
Self-explanation and digital games: Adaptively increasing abstraction
Clark, D. B., Virk, S., Barnes, J., & Adams, D. M. (2016) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.09.010 · Cited by 37
Self-citationGamification in management education - A literature mapping
Silva, R., Rodrigues, R. G., & Leal, C. T. P. (2019) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-019-10055-9 · Cited by 37
León, A. M., Aguilar-Parra, J. M., Rodríguez-Ferrer, J. M., Trigueros, R., Collado-Soler, R., Méndez-Aguado, C., García-Hernández, M. J., & ALONSO, L. M. (2021) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci11080426 · Cited by 38
Game-based collaborative vocabulary learning in blended and distance L2 learning
Bahari, A. (2022) · Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning · doi:10.1080/02680513.2020.1814229 · Cited by 36
“This finding reconfirms the reported relationship between gender and motivation (Clark et al., 2016; De Freitas, 2018; Ivey, 1999; Noroozi et al., 2013; Shapiro & Whitney, 1997; Sung & Hwang, 2013; Tsou et al., 2006).”
ResultDenham, A. R. (2017) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12582 · Cited by 36
Yallihep, M., & Kutlu, B. (2019) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-019-10008-2 · Cited by 37
“2005) & Psychology (Clark et al. 2016; Fleming et al. 2017) & History (Huizenga et al.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Clark, D. B., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Killingsworth, S. S.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Vanderbilt University
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 2016-03
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 79-122
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- PMC
- PMC4748544
- OpenAlex
- W2099460238
- Cited by
- 1,274
- References
- 146
- Citations by year
- 2026: 159 · 2025: 129 · 2024: 126 · 2023: 120 · 2022: 125 · 2021: 163 · 2020: 125 · 2019: 122 · 2018: 103 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 28
- FWCI
- 169.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Games and Media
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- video games, game-based learning, educational game design, game mechanics, game affordances, learning outcomes, K-16 education
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