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Digital Games, Design, and Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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In this meta-analysis, we systematically reviewed research on digital games and learning for K–16 students. We synthesized comparisons of game versus nongame conditions (i.e., media comparisons) and comparisons of augmented games versus standard game designs (i.e., value-added comparisons). We used random-effects meta-regression models with robust variance estimates to summarize overall effects and explore potential moderator effects. Results from media comparisons indicated that digital games significantly enhanced student learning relative to nongame conditions ([Formula: see text] = 0.33, 95% confidence interval [0.19, 0.48], k = 57, n = 209). Results from value-added comparisons indicated significant learning benefits associated with augmented game designs ([Formula: see text] = 0.34, 95% confidence interval [0.17, 0.51], k = 20, n = 40). Moderator analyses demonstrated that effects varied across various game mechanics characteristics, visual and narrative characteristics, and research quality characteristics. Taken together, the results highlight the affordances of games for learning as well as the key role of design beyond medium.
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![Figure 2. Scatter plot of pretest-adjusted posttest effect sizes and overall contextualization aggregate score for digital game versus nongame conditions (media comparisons). Note. Each effect size shown proportionate to its weight in the meta-analysis. Slope coefficient from meta-regression with robust variance estimation b = −0.07 (p = .01, 95% CI [−0.12, −0.01]).](/paper-figures/308463f1df4b46ffa9b948a3ff86b75a/digital-games-design-and-learning-a-systematic-review-and-meta-analysis-figure-2.jpg)
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“Inclusion of game fiction is closely related to the use of narrative anchors and has been shown to be effective for learning as it situates and anchors learning in a context (Clark et al. 2016) and can further serve as a cognitive framework for problem solving (Dickey 2006).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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In the citing paper
“In addition, the results of the summary effect analyses were similar to results from meta-analyses conducted in the context of games (see Clark et al. 2016;Wouters et al. 2013), indicating that the power of games can be transferred to non-game contexts by using game design elements.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“This result for behavioral learning outcomes is in line with evidence from the context of games, showing that combinations of competition and collaboration in games are promising for learning (Clark et al. 2016).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“Clark et al. (2016) included competition in their meta-analysis on digital games and found that combinations of competition and collaboration as well as single-player games without competitive elements can outperform games with mere competition.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
In the citing paper
“The reviews have also documented the effects on students' learning outcomes and the key role of gamified designs (Alsawaier, 2018;Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016).”
From Towards a motivational design? Connecting gamification user types and online learning activities (2020) · cites this paper as Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016
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Shi, J. L., Shah, A., Hedman, G., & O'Rourke, E. (2019) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3290605.3300886 · Cited by 24
“Video games are known for their ability to motivate players to develop complex problem-solving skills, and previous analyses of games have shown their potential to achieve educational goals [14, 25, 42, 52].”
BackgroundSupporting Learning in Educational Games: Promises and Challenges
Shute, V. J., Rahimi, S., & Lu, X. (2019) · Smart computing and intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8265-9_4 · Cited by 30
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“…instruction in elementary through higher education contexts, found positive effects associated with interactive versus didactic pedagogy; and D. B. Clark et al. (2016), reviewing studies on digital games in K–16 settings, found positive effects of gamification across domains (e.g., literacy,…”
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“Despite this importance, the empirical evidence regarding the educational context is not yet conclusive (Clark et al., 2016).”
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“…of the impacts of mathematics educational technology reveal small positive effects from such programs—effects range depending on the nature of the program, assessment, study design, and age of students (Cheung & Slavin, 2013; Clark et al., 2016; Higgins et al., 2019; Pellegrini et al., 2020).”
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“It should be noted that some studies have found that the duration of game-based learning intervention does not have significant explanatory power (Clark et al., 2016; Merchant et al., 2014).”
BackgroundA Computer-Based Game That Promotes Mathematics Learning More Than a Conventional Approach
McLaren, B. M., Adams, D. M., Mayer, R. E., & Forlizzi, J. (2017) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-5198-0.ch022 · Cited by 23
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“Students’ learning motivation and engagement can be enhanced and maintained via game-based learning (Clark et al., 2016), which also stimulates their deeper thinking (Drake & Sung, 2011).”
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“…characteristics (e.g., intervention duration, learning context), and (3) learner related factors such as their personal traits (e.g., gender), cognitive states (e.g., prior knowledge), or affective states (e.g., engagement) (Clark et al., 2016; Shute et al., 2015; Vanbecelaere et al., 2021).”
BackgroundCabellos, B., Echeverría, M. D. P. P., & Pozo, J. I. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13010058 · Cited by 28
“The educational use of video games produces moderate but consistent effects on learning in different curriculum areas [13,14], including some commercial video games originally designed for entertainment [15].”
BackgroundEffects of game-based learning supports on students’ math performance and perceived game flow
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“On the one hand, some researchers reported that extra learning support did not produce learning improvement (Clark et al., 2016).”
BackgroundGame-based learning approach in computer science in primary education: A systematic review
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An analysis of the Australasian Journal of Educational Technology 2013-2017
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“One of the notable aspects is the identification of VG conceptions regarding pragmatic or epistemic uses, that until now, had only been contemplated in VG practice to identify the learning obtained (de Aldama & Pozo, 2020; Clark et al., 2016; Mayer, 2019).”
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Cultivating critical game makers in digital game-based learning: learning from the arts
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Filtered Time Series Analyses of Student Problem-Solving Behaviors in Game-Based Learning.
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Simulations, Games, and Modeling Tools for Learning
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“…previous systematic reviews have suggested that DG significantly enhance learning, relative to traditional learning conditions for K–16 students (Clark et al., 2016), and students using interactive DG reported higher cognitive gains as well as better attitudes towards learning (Vogel et al.,…”
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“…is also growing interest in entertainment games (i.e., commercial digital entertainment products designed for recreational purposes) and how they can be used to promote meaningful learning (Clark et al., 2016; Jayakanthan, 2002; Martinez et al., 2022; McClarty et al., 2012; Paraskeva et al., 2010).”
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“In another meta-analytic study, Clark et al. (2016) examined 69 studies between the years 2000–2012.”
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Students’ Perceptions of a Gamified Reading Assessment
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“…not designed to be socially motivating because students needed to be assessed on their individual reading abilities, and based on previous findings (Clark et al., 2016; Ferrell et al., 2015; Kocadere & Caglar, 2015), we did not want to make the test competitive such that it might reduce the…”
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Gauthier, A., Porayska‐Pomsta, K., Dumontheil, I., Mayer, S., & Mareschal, D. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction · doi:10.1145/3485168 · Cited by 22
Escape Room as Game-Based Learning Process: Causation - Effectuation Perspective
Järveläinen, J., & Paavilainen‐Mäntymäki, E. (2019) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.24251/hicss.2019.178 · Cited by 21
“This study addresses the call for understanding how learning happens in games [7] by examining qualitative video data from a physical escape room, In other words”
BackgroundDigital Game-Based Inquiry Learning to Improve Eighth Graders’ Inquiry Skills in Biology
Bónus, L., Antal, E., & Korom, E. (2024) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-024-10096-x · Cited by 19
“Recent research has also drawn attention to the fact that different game mechanisms have different effects, which is why the design of games is crucial (Clark et al., 2016).”
Lernunterstützung mit digitalen Medien in der Grundschule
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“Virtual laboratories also provide a platform to experiment and manipulate different variables which is a step-up from traditional lectures and direct instructions (Clark et al., 2016; Merchant et al., 2014).”
BackgroundEsports Research and Its Integration in Education
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“Additionally, Clark et al. (2016) found from their meta-analysis that game design, rather than the game medium, predicted the learning outcomes and impacts.”
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“Although the definition of DGBL may differ among scholars, most researchers agree that it provides a motivational learning environment (Clark et al., 2016; Hussein et al., 2022) to enhance student learning via using advantage of digital games (Byun & Joung, 2018; Qian & Clark, 2016; Tang et al.,…”
BackgroundClark, D. B., Virk, S., Sengupta, P., Brady, C. E., Martinez-Garza, M. M., Krinks, K. D., Killingsworth, S. S., Kinnebrew, J. S., Biswas, G., Barnes, J., et al. (2016) · International Journal of Designs for Learning · doi:10.14434/ijdl.v7i1.19359 · Cited by 18
“In some ways, this pattern aligns with a finding of the meta-analysis by Clark, Tanner-Smith, and Killingsworth (2015) that demonstrates a slight but significant negative relationship between contextual richness in games and the learning outcomes.”
ResultSelf-citationGAMIFICATION IN ACCOUNTING AND STUDENTS’ SKILLSET
Durso, S. D. O., Reginato, L., & Cornacchione, E. B. (2020) · Advances in Scientific and Applied Accounting · doi:10.14392/asaa.2019120305 · Cited by 29
Utilising Online Gamification to Promote Student Success and Retention in Tertiary Settings
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“The results confirmed previous studies in that the DGBL made positive contributions to achievement (Bakan & Bakan, 2018; Boyle et al., 2016; Clark et al., 2016; Erhel & Jamet, 2013; Yıldırım & Baran, 2021).”
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“Recent meta-analyses reveal that serious games can increase learning, self-efficacy, and motivation in comparison to traditional learning or other non-gaming stimuli (Wouters et al. 2013; Sitzmann 2011; Clark et al. 2016) but fail to highlight the value-added effect of game design (Clark et al.”
BackgroundGamification when studying logical operators on the Minecraft EDU platform
Федоренко, О., Кайдан, Н. В., Velychko, V. Y., & Soloviev, V. (2021) · doi:10.31812/123456789/4624 · Cited by 18
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“Leveraging the benefits of game-based learning [29], PrimaryAI aims to create effective and engaging AI learning experiences.”
BackgroundPositive effects of online games on the growth of college students: A qualitative study from China
Li, F., Zhang, D., Wu, S., Zhou, R., Dong, C., & Zhang, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1008211 · Cited by 17
“, 2013), online gameplay has the potential to motivate individuals to participate in educational settings to improve students’ interest in learning (Clark et al., 2016).”
BackgroundDemystifying the Relations of Motivation and Emotions in Game-Based Learning
Kiili, K. J. M., Siuko, J., Cloude, E. B., & Dindar, M. (2023) · International Journal of Serious Games · doi:10.17083/ijsg.v10i4.629 · Cited by 17
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“[6] underscores the central role of design in the efficacy of digital games for learning.”
BackgroundSelf-citationMobile Digital Games as an Educational Tool in K-12 Schools
Crompton, H., Lin, Y.-C., Burke, D., & Block, A. (2017) · Perspectives on rethinking and reforming education · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-6144-8_1 · Cited by 17
Impact of narrative and badging on learning and engagement in a psychology learning game
Fanfarelli, J. R. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12838 · Cited by 15
Designing a Visual Interface for Elementary Students to Formulate AI Planning Tasks
Park, K., Mott, B. W., Lee, S. Y., Glazewski, K., Scribner, J., Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T., Hmelo-Silver, C., & Lester, J. C. (2021) · IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages / Human-Centric Computing Languages and Environments · doi:10.1109/vl/hcc51201.2021.9576163 · Cited by 13
Uncovering Gender and Problem Difficulty Effects in Learning with an Educational Game
McLaren, B., Farzan, R., Adams, D., Mayer, R., & Forlizzi, J. (2017) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-61425-0_59 · Cited by 17
“A meta-review of over 1000 educational game studies advises that more value-added studies of educational games be conducted, that is, research that carefully identifies the features and conditions that lead to the successes and failures of educational games [2].”
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Parsons, S., Karakosta, E., Boniface, M., & Crowle, S. (2019) · International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.ijcci.2019.100142 · Cited by 18
“The role of digital games in this context has also been widely investigated with research demonstrating positive benefits for learning in general for digital games when compared to non-game-based teaching [12].”
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Baker, R. S., Richey, J. E., Zhang, J., Karumbaiah, S., Andres-Bray, J. M. L., Nguyen, H. A., Andres, J. M. A. L., & McLaren, B. M. (2024) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-024-09679-3 · Cited by 16
“Recently, meta-analyses have offered insight into which features of games are beneficial for learning and engagement (Clark et al., 2016; Ke, 2016; Mayer, 2019; Wouters & van Oostendorp, 2017).”
InfluentialLearning Neuroscience with Technology: a Scaffolded, Active Learning Approach
Schleisman, K. B., Guzey, S. S., Lie, R., Michlin, M. L., Desjardins, C. D., Shackleton, H., Schwerdfeger, A. C., Michalowski, M., & Dubinsky, J. M. (2018) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-018-9748-y · Cited by 16
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Natucci, G. C., & Borges, M. A. F. (2021) · IEEE Conference on Games (CoG) · doi:10.1109/cog52621.2021.9619144 · Cited by 16
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“This mechanism could make up for the limited results obtained in research about learning with VG, which tend to point to factual learning (Boyle et al., 2016; Clark et al., 2016; Mayer, 2019) or immediate spontaneous behaviors (Passmore & Holder, 2014).”
BackgroundLiu, Z., & Jeong, A. C. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10145-5 · Cited by 20
“Although the research reveals mean effect sizes that show game-based learning (GBL) can be effective (e.g., Clark et al., 2016), the findings in game-based learning research have been mixed (Prensky, 2012), and this can be partly attributed to the high variance in game designs (e.g., with versus…”
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“Historically, the game-based learning literature has failed to measure causal links between the designs of learning games and the significant learning outcomes that their use generates (Boyle et al., 2016; Clark et al., 2016).”
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“This strong link with software may help to understand the advantages in learning processes [15,16] and school curriculum [17].”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Clark, D. B., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Killingsworth, S. S.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Vanderbilt University
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 2016-03
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 79-122
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- PMC
- PMC4748544
- OpenAlex
- W2099460238
- Cited by
- 1,274
- References
- 146
- Citations by year
- 2026: 159 · 2025: 129 · 2024: 126 · 2023: 120 · 2022: 125 · 2021: 163 · 2020: 125 · 2019: 122 · 2018: 103 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 28
- FWCI
- 169.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Games and Media
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- video games, game-based learning, educational game design, game mechanics, game affordances, learning outcomes, K-16 education
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