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Digital Games, Design, and Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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In this meta-analysis, we systematically reviewed research on digital games and learning for K–16 students. We synthesized comparisons of game versus nongame conditions (i.e., media comparisons) and comparisons of augmented games versus standard game designs (i.e., value-added comparisons). We used random-effects meta-regression models with robust variance estimates to summarize overall effects and explore potential moderator effects. Results from media comparisons indicated that digital games significantly enhanced student learning relative to nongame conditions ([Formula: see text] = 0.33, 95% confidence interval [0.19, 0.48], k = 57, n = 209). Results from value-added comparisons indicated significant learning benefits associated with augmented game designs ([Formula: see text] = 0.34, 95% confidence interval [0.17, 0.51], k = 20, n = 40). Moderator analyses demonstrated that effects varied across various game mechanics characteristics, visual and narrative characteristics, and research quality characteristics. Taken together, the results highlight the affordances of games for learning as well as the key role of design beyond medium.
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![Figure 2. Scatter plot of pretest-adjusted posttest effect sizes and overall contextualization aggregate score for digital game versus nongame conditions (media comparisons). Note. Each effect size shown proportionate to its weight in the meta-analysis. Slope coefficient from meta-regression with robust variance estimation b = −0.07 (p = .01, 95% CI [−0.12, −0.01]).](/paper-figures/308463f1df4b46ffa9b948a3ff86b75a/digital-games-design-and-learning-a-systematic-review-and-meta-analysis-figure-2.jpg)
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“Inclusion of game fiction is closely related to the use of narrative anchors and has been shown to be effective for learning as it situates and anchors learning in a context (Clark et al. 2016) and can further serve as a cognitive framework for problem solving (Dickey 2006).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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In the citing paper
“In addition, the results of the summary effect analyses were similar to results from meta-analyses conducted in the context of games (see Clark et al. 2016;Wouters et al. 2013), indicating that the power of games can be transferred to non-game contexts by using game design elements.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“This result for behavioral learning outcomes is in line with evidence from the context of games, showing that combinations of competition and collaboration in games are promising for learning (Clark et al. 2016).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“Clark et al. (2016) included competition in their meta-analysis on digital games and found that combinations of competition and collaboration as well as single-player games without competitive elements can outperform games with mere competition.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
In the citing paper
“The reviews have also documented the effects on students' learning outcomes and the key role of gamified designs (Alsawaier, 2018;Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016).”
From Towards a motivational design? Connecting gamification user types and online learning activities (2020) · cites this paper as Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016
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Valverde, G. J. (2025) · Encyclopedia · doi:10.3390/encyclopedia5030116 · Cited by 26
Sánchez, J. G. S., López, R. Q., & Airado‐Rodríguez, D. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16010122 · Cited by 10
Vocabulary interventions for second language (L2) learners up to six years of age
Hjetland, H. N., Hofslundsengen, H. C., Klem, M., Karlsen, J., Hagen, Å. M. M., Engevik, L. I., Geva, E., Norbury, C., Monsrud, M.-B., & Næss, K.-A. B. (2023) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd014890.pub2 · Cited by 16
Learning Newtonian mechanics with an intrinsically integrated educational game
van der Linden, A., Meulenbroeks, R. R., & van Joolingen, W. (2024) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12966 · Cited by 10
“Research on the design process and different design elements of educational games has led to some interesting directions, but some design aspects remain unclear (Clark et al., 2016; Denham, 2016; Ke, 2016; Lameras, Arnab, Dunwell, Stewart, Clarke & Petridis, 2017).”
BackgroundLearning to Evaluate (Mis)information in an Online Game: Strategies Matter!
Barzilai, S., & Stadtler, M. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105210 · Cited by 15
Increasing Student Engagement, Fraction Knowledge, and STEM Interest Through Game-Based Intervention
Hunt, J. H., Taub, M., Marino, M. T., Holman, K., & Womack-Adams, K. (2025) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/01626434251314014 · Cited by 14
“Just like fraction interventions, game-based mathematics interventions have also gained growing attention over the past decade (e.g. Clark et al., 2016).”
Introduction to Game-Based Learning
Rye, S., Sousa, M., & Sousa, C. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-78523-8_2 · Cited by 20
Grinschgl, S., Ninaus, M., Wood, G. M. D. O., & Neubauer, A. C. (2025) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2025.05.002 · Cited by 12
Lu, J., Si, H., Xu, J., & Xu, T.-G. (2025) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2025.100712 · Cited by 10
Pange, J., Λέκκα, Ά., & Κατσιγιάννη, Σ. (2018) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75175-7_25 · Cited by 10
Virtual Reality in Professional Training: An Example from the Field of Bank Counselling
Kickmeier-Rust, M., Leitner, M., & Hann, P. (2020) · International Conference of the Immersive Learning Research Network (iLRN) · doi:10.23919/ilrn47897.2020.9155083 · Cited by 10
Keese, J., Ford, D. J., Luke, S. E., & Vaughn, S. M. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-11792-8 · Cited by 12
“More interactive tools, such as games and simulations, can be especially engaging for college students (Clark et al., 2016 ; Vlachopoulos & Makri, 2017 ).”
End-to-End Procedural Level Generation in Educational Games with Natural Language Instruction
Kumaran, V., Carpenter, D., Rowe, J., Mott, B., & Lester, J. C. (2023) · IEEE Conference on Games (CoG) · doi:10.1109/cog57401.2023.10333195 · Cited by 10
de Souza, G. N., Brito, Y. P. D. S., Tsutsumi, M. M. A., Marques, L. B., Goulart, P. R. K., Monteiro, D. C., & de Santana, Á. L. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02531 · Cited by 10
“In the literature that investigates the use of games as a teaching tool, reviews show not only an increase in academic performance, but also improved motivation of the participants (Clark et al., 2016; Ke, 2016).”
BackgroundGames and Learning: Potential and Limitations from the Players’ Point of View
Persico, D., Passarelli, M., Dagnino, F. M., Manganello, F., Earp, J., & Pozzi, F. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-11548-7_13 · Cited by 11
Chang, C., & Tsai, Y.-T. (2018) · IIAI International Congress on Advanced Applied Informatics (IIAI-AAI) · doi:10.1109/iiai-aai.2018.00061 · Cited by 10
“Many findings of relevant studies are very positive [2][7][9][10].”
BackgroundAgudelo-Londoño, S., Gorbanev, I., Delgadillo-Sánchez, V. P., Múñoz, Ó., Cortés, A. E., González, R. A., & Pomares, A. (2019) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2018.0101 · Cited by 11
Exploring video games and learning in South Africa: An integrative review
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“Although these reviews argued that video games increased players’ knowledge acquisition (Young et al. 2012), facilitated learning (Clark et al. 2016), and even learned from failure (Darabi et al. 2018), these results were limited to western-based settings.”
BackgroundResultCan narrative cutscenes improve home learning from a math game? An experimental study with children
Sýkora, T., Stárková, T., & Brom, C. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12939 · Cited by 12
Coordinating vector field equations and diagrams with a serious game in introductory physics
Klein, P., Burkard, N., Hahn, L., Dahlkemper, M. N., Eberle, K., Jaeger, T., & Herrlich, M. (2021) · European Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/1361-6404/abef5c · Cited by 12
“The research on the learning outcome of serious games in general is summarised by meta-analyses such as the one by Clark et al (2016) which found positive effects of game-based learning [27], which was in accordance with several other meta-analyses carried out before [28–30].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Clark, D. B., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Killingsworth, S. S.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Vanderbilt University
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 2016-03
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 79-122
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- PMC
- PMC4748544
- OpenAlex
- W2099460238
- Cited by
- 1,274
- References
- 146
- Citations by year
- 2026: 159 · 2025: 129 · 2024: 126 · 2023: 120 · 2022: 125 · 2021: 163 · 2020: 125 · 2019: 122 · 2018: 103 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 28
- FWCI
- 169.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Games and Media
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- video games, game-based learning, educational game design, game mechanics, game affordances, learning outcomes, K-16 education
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