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Digital Games, Design, and Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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In this meta-analysis, we systematically reviewed research on digital games and learning for K–16 students. We synthesized comparisons of game versus nongame conditions (i.e., media comparisons) and comparisons of augmented games versus standard game designs (i.e., value-added comparisons). We used random-effects meta-regression models with robust variance estimates to summarize overall effects and explore potential moderator effects. Results from media comparisons indicated that digital games significantly enhanced student learning relative to nongame conditions ([Formula: see text] = 0.33, 95% confidence interval [0.19, 0.48], k = 57, n = 209). Results from value-added comparisons indicated significant learning benefits associated with augmented game designs ([Formula: see text] = 0.34, 95% confidence interval [0.17, 0.51], k = 20, n = 40). Moderator analyses demonstrated that effects varied across various game mechanics characteristics, visual and narrative characteristics, and research quality characteristics. Taken together, the results highlight the affordances of games for learning as well as the key role of design beyond medium.
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![Figure 2. Scatter plot of pretest-adjusted posttest effect sizes and overall contextualization aggregate score for digital game versus nongame conditions (media comparisons). Note. Each effect size shown proportionate to its weight in the meta-analysis. Slope coefficient from meta-regression with robust variance estimation b = −0.07 (p = .01, 95% CI [−0.12, −0.01]).](/paper-figures/308463f1df4b46ffa9b948a3ff86b75a/digital-games-design-and-learning-a-systematic-review-and-meta-analysis-figure-2.jpg)
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“Inclusion of game fiction is closely related to the use of narrative anchors and has been shown to be effective for learning as it situates and anchors learning in a context (Clark et al. 2016) and can further serve as a cognitive framework for problem solving (Dickey 2006).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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In the citing paper
“In addition, the results of the summary effect analyses were similar to results from meta-analyses conducted in the context of games (see Clark et al. 2016;Wouters et al. 2013), indicating that the power of games can be transferred to non-game contexts by using game design elements.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“This result for behavioral learning outcomes is in line with evidence from the context of games, showing that combinations of competition and collaboration in games are promising for learning (Clark et al. 2016).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“Clark et al. (2016) included competition in their meta-analysis on digital games and found that combinations of competition and collaboration as well as single-player games without competitive elements can outperform games with mere competition.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
In the citing paper
“The reviews have also documented the effects on students' learning outcomes and the key role of gamified designs (Alsawaier, 2018;Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016).”
From Towards a motivational design? Connecting gamification user types and online learning activities (2020) · cites this paper as Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016
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Do You Want to Learn Physics? Please Play Angry Birds (But With Epistemic Goals)
de Aldama, C., & Pozo, J. I. (2019) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/0735633118823160 · Cited by 34
“A meta-analysis conducted by Clark et al. (2016) claims that digital games were associated with learning improvement relative to nongame comparison conditions, results aligned with previous meta-analysis on the effects of games on learning (Sitzmann, 2011; Vogel et al., 2006; Wouters, van Nimwegen,…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSuccessful Learning Environments Support and Harness Students’ Identity-based Motivation: A Primer
Oyserman, D., & Dawson, A. (2021) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2021.1873091 · Cited by 30
Applying Learning Analytics to Detect Sequences of Actions and Common Errors in a Geometry Game
Gomez, M. J., Ruipérez‐Valiente, J. A., Martínez, P. A., & Kim, Y. J. (2021) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s21041025 · Cited by 26
Latent factors on the design and adoption of gamified apps in primary education
Cano, E. V., García, M. D. P. Q., Cadavieco, J. F., & Rodríguez-Arce, J. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-11797-3 · Cited by 25
Montero-Mesa, L., Varela, F. F., Couñago, E. V., & Groba, A. R. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13101029 · Cited by 25
“These results are in keeping with the findings of previous studies [59–61] which confirm the potential benefits of this type of strategy.”
BackgroundResultAn Empirical Evaluation of Transfer-of-Training of Two Flight Simulation Games
Korteling, H., Helsdingen, A. S., & Sluimer, R. R. (2016) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878116671057 · Cited by 25
Rowe, J., Lobene, E. V., Mott, B., & Lester, J. C. (2017) · International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations · doi:10.4018/ijgcms.2017070104 · Cited by 25
Student Agency and Game-Based Learning: A Study Comparing Low and High Agency
Nguyen, H. A., Harpstead, E., Wang, Y., & McLaren, B. M. (2018) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-93843-1_25 · Cited by 27
“The search is now on for the specific features of games that lead to engagement and learning benefits, as well as how we can best leverage those features to maximize the potential of educational games [2].”
BackgroundSaputro, S. D., & Setyawan, A. (2020) · JPI (Jurnal Pendidikan Indonesia) · doi:10.23887/jpi-undiksha.v9i3.23105 · Cited by 25
Meeting players where they are: Digital games and learning ecologies
Persico, D., Passarelli, M., Pozzi, F., Earp, J., Dagnino, F. M., & Manganello, F. (2019) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12777 · Cited by 32
Developing usability heuristics with PROMETHEUS: A case study in virtual learning environments
Figueroa, I., Jiménez, C., Allende‐Cid, H., & Leger, P. (2019) · Computer Standards & Interfaces · doi:10.1016/j.csi.2019.03.003 · Cited by 24
Winning Over the Players: Investigating the Motivations to Play and Acceptance of Serious Games
Jacobs, R. S. (2021) · Media and Communication · doi:10.17645/mac.v9i1.3308 · Cited by 25
Competition in a Household Energy Conservation Game
Fijnheer, J. D., van Oostendorp, H., Giezeman, G.-J., & Veltkamp, R. C. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su132111991 · Cited by 24
Commercial city building games as pedagogical tools: what have we learned?
Bereitschaft, B. (2021) · Journal of Geography in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03098265.2021.2007524 · Cited by 27
“Regarding whether digital games actually improve academic performance, the evidence so far has been mixed but predominately positive (Clark et al., 2016; Randall et al., 1992; Tobias et al., 2011; Vogel et al., 2006).”
BackgroundGameful Learning for a More Sustainable World
Hoffmann, G., & Pfeiffer, J. (2021) · Business & Information Systems Engineering · doi:10.1007/s12599-021-00731-x · Cited by 38
“…showed that computer games provide great learning opportunities for students, as games motivate them to learn, provided that they are adequately designed and that the content of the software, problems presented and instructional methods are carefully aligned (Duffield 1991; Clark et al. 2016).”
BackgroundSteinkuehler, C. A., & Squire, K. D. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108888295.018 · Cited by 25
Do teachers believe that video games can improve learning?
Pozo, J. I., Cabellos, B., & Sánchez, D. L. (2022) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09798 · Cited by 38
von Gillern, S., & Stufft, C. J. (2022) · Literacy · doi:10.1111/lit.12304 · Cited by 26
Varón, D. J., García, I. B., & Gupta, B. B. (2023) · Comunicar · doi:10.3916/c76-2023-02 · Cited by 24
Enhancing emergency care in low-income countries using mobile technology-based training tools
Edgcombe, H., Paton, C., & English, M. (2016) · Archives of Disease in Childhood · doi:10.1136/archdischild-2016-310875 · Cited by 24
Metadata
- Authors
- Clark, D. B., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Killingsworth, S. S.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Vanderbilt University
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 2016-03
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 79-122
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- PMC
- PMC4748544
- OpenAlex
- W2099460238
- Cited by
- 1,274
- References
- 146
- Citations by year
- 2026: 159 · 2025: 129 · 2024: 126 · 2023: 120 · 2022: 125 · 2021: 163 · 2020: 125 · 2019: 122 · 2018: 103 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 28
- FWCI
- 169.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Games and Media
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- video games, game-based learning, educational game design, game mechanics, game affordances, learning outcomes, K-16 education
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