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Digital Games, Design, and Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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In this meta-analysis, we systematically reviewed research on digital games and learning for K–16 students. We synthesized comparisons of game versus nongame conditions (i.e., media comparisons) and comparisons of augmented games versus standard game designs (i.e., value-added comparisons). We used random-effects meta-regression models with robust variance estimates to summarize overall effects and explore potential moderator effects. Results from media comparisons indicated that digital games significantly enhanced student learning relative to nongame conditions ([Formula: see text] = 0.33, 95% confidence interval [0.19, 0.48], k = 57, n = 209). Results from value-added comparisons indicated significant learning benefits associated with augmented game designs ([Formula: see text] = 0.34, 95% confidence interval [0.17, 0.51], k = 20, n = 40). Moderator analyses demonstrated that effects varied across various game mechanics characteristics, visual and narrative characteristics, and research quality characteristics. Taken together, the results highlight the affordances of games for learning as well as the key role of design beyond medium.
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![Figure 2. Scatter plot of pretest-adjusted posttest effect sizes and overall contextualization aggregate score for digital game versus nongame conditions (media comparisons). Note. Each effect size shown proportionate to its weight in the meta-analysis. Slope coefficient from meta-regression with robust variance estimation b = −0.07 (p = .01, 95% CI [−0.12, −0.01]).](/paper-figures/308463f1df4b46ffa9b948a3ff86b75a/digital-games-design-and-learning-a-systematic-review-and-meta-analysis-figure-2.jpg)
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“Inclusion of game fiction is closely related to the use of narrative anchors and has been shown to be effective for learning as it situates and anchors learning in a context (Clark et al. 2016) and can further serve as a cognitive framework for problem solving (Dickey 2006).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“In addition, the results of the summary effect analyses were similar to results from meta-analyses conducted in the context of games (see Clark et al. 2016;Wouters et al. 2013), indicating that the power of games can be transferred to non-game contexts by using game design elements.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“This result for behavioral learning outcomes is in line with evidence from the context of games, showing that combinations of competition and collaboration in games are promising for learning (Clark et al. 2016).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“Clark et al. (2016) included competition in their meta-analysis on digital games and found that combinations of competition and collaboration as well as single-player games without competitive elements can outperform games with mere competition.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“The reviews have also documented the effects on students' learning outcomes and the key role of gamified designs (Alsawaier, 2018;Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016).”
From Towards a motivational design? Connecting gamification user types and online learning activities (2020) · cites this paper as Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016
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Metadata
- Authors
- Clark, D. B., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Killingsworth, S. S.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Vanderbilt University
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 2016-03
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 79-122
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- PMC
- PMC4748544
- OpenAlex
- W2099460238
- Cited by
- 1,274
- References
- 146
- Citations by year
- 2026: 159 · 2025: 129 · 2024: 126 · 2023: 120 · 2022: 125 · 2021: 163 · 2020: 125 · 2019: 122 · 2018: 103 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 28
- FWCI
- 169.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Games and Media
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- video games, game-based learning, educational game design, game mechanics, game affordances, learning outcomes, K-16 education
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