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Digital Games, Design, and Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Open accessAbstract
In this meta-analysis, we systematically reviewed research on digital games and learning for K–16 students. We synthesized comparisons of game versus nongame conditions (i.e., media comparisons) and comparisons of augmented games versus standard game designs (i.e., value-added comparisons). We used random-effects meta-regression models with robust variance estimates to summarize overall effects and explore potential moderator effects. Results from media comparisons indicated that digital games significantly enhanced student learning relative to nongame conditions ([Formula: see text] = 0.33, 95% confidence interval [0.19, 0.48], k = 57, n = 209). Results from value-added comparisons indicated significant learning benefits associated with augmented game designs ([Formula: see text] = 0.34, 95% confidence interval [0.17, 0.51], k = 20, n = 40). Moderator analyses demonstrated that effects varied across various game mechanics characteristics, visual and narrative characteristics, and research quality characteristics. Taken together, the results highlight the affordances of games for learning as well as the key role of design beyond medium.
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![Figure 2. Scatter plot of pretest-adjusted posttest effect sizes and overall contextualization aggregate score for digital game versus nongame conditions (media comparisons). Note. Each effect size shown proportionate to its weight in the meta-analysis. Slope coefficient from meta-regression with robust variance estimation b = −0.07 (p = .01, 95% CI [−0.12, −0.01]).](/paper-figures/308463f1df4b46ffa9b948a3ff86b75a/digital-games-design-and-learning-a-systematic-review-and-meta-analysis-figure-2.jpg)
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“Inclusion of game fiction is closely related to the use of narrative anchors and has been shown to be effective for learning as it situates and anchors learning in a context (Clark et al. 2016) and can further serve as a cognitive framework for problem solving (Dickey 2006).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“In addition, the results of the summary effect analyses were similar to results from meta-analyses conducted in the context of games (see Clark et al. 2016;Wouters et al. 2013), indicating that the power of games can be transferred to non-game contexts by using game design elements.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“This result for behavioral learning outcomes is in line with evidence from the context of games, showing that combinations of competition and collaboration in games are promising for learning (Clark et al. 2016).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“Clark et al. (2016) included competition in their meta-analysis on digital games and found that combinations of competition and collaboration as well as single-player games without competitive elements can outperform games with mere competition.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
In the citing paper
“The reviews have also documented the effects on students' learning outcomes and the key role of gamified designs (Alsawaier, 2018;Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016).”
From Towards a motivational design? Connecting gamification user types and online learning activities (2020) · cites this paper as Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016
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Sungkaew, K., Kaewbamrung, C., Phirom, T., Chitjaruenyoo, W., Phophet, C., Phrommueang, P., Yingmuang, S., & Nizam, D. N. M. (2024) · CCF Transactions on Pervasive Computing and Interaction · doi:10.1007/s42486-024-00176-7 · Cited by 3
“According to a study by (Clark et al. 2016), educational games have shown positive effects on children’s cognitive abilities, including problem-solving skills and critical thinking.”
Adaptive serious games assessment: The case of the blood transfusion game in nursing education
Ifenthaler, D., Şahi̇n, M., Boo, I., Rajasegeran, D. D., & Yuh, A. S. (2024) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100351 · Cited by 1
“In a widely cited meta-analysis, Clark et al. (2016) report that serious games had a moderate to strong effect on improving overall learning outcomes, including cognitive and interpersonal skills, compared to non-game conditions.”
Quality and Educational Value of Popular Digital Games in Younger School Age
Sadović, F. P., Demirović, E., Trtovac-Dedeić, A., & Karaahmetović, H. (2024) · Društvene i humanističke studije · doi:10.51558/2490-3647.2024.9.2.1119 · Cited by 1
WIP: Investigating Students' Emotions and Motivations in a Game-Based Learning Environment
Deeter, A., Goodall, G., Pham, K., Sundstrom, J. L., Qazilbash, A., Zastavker, Y. V., Harteveld, C., Bennett, V. G., & Abdoun, T. H. (2024) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie61694.2024.10893019 · Cited by 1
“…– from improving students’ “conceptual understanding and argumentation skills” to building “intellectual openness, work ethic and conscientiousness, and positive core self-evaluation” to having “a significant and positive impact on student engagement and academic performance” [2][3][4].”
WIP: For the Love of the Game: Exploring Student Motivation in Game-Based Learning Environments
Deeter, A., Pham, K., Sundstrom, J. L., Goodall, G., Qazilbash, A., Zastavker, Y. V., Harteveld, C., Bennett, V. G., & Abdoun, T. H. (2024) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie61694.2024.10893400 · Cited by 1
“…on non-cognitive learning outcomes demonstrated its supportive role in the development of both interpersonal skills, i.e., “intellec-tual openness, work ethic and conscientiousness, and positive core self-evaluation,” and intrapersonal skills, i.e., “teamwork, collaboration, and leadership” [5].”
Protocol for Bayesian Meta-analysis on Digital Game-Enhanced Vocabulary Learning
Shahiwala, S., & Rahul, D. R. (2025) · Research Synthesis in Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1080/29984475.2025.2490568 · Cited by 1
Buhay, C. M., & Tandog, L. C. (2025) · EIKI Journal of Effective Teaching Methods · doi:10.59652/jetm.v3i2.522 · Cited by 1
“This supports earlier findings that incorporating games into instruction can improve learners’ achievement in mathematics (Clark et al., 2016; Wouters et al., 2013) and foster clearer comprehension of mathematical concepts (Yusoff et al., 2014).”
Os, J. M. C. V., Cook, N. B., Ledesma, D., Cradock, R., Abraham, O., & Bräuer, M. (2025) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2025-26311 · Cited by 1
Dı́az, B. D., García‐Ramos, R., & Martín, S. A. (2025) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2025.2514974 · Cited by 1
Roux, G., Caicedo-Eraso, J. C., & Millán, G. C. S. (2025) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2025.2530217 · Cited by 1
“SVG create immersive and interactive learning environments that enhance engagement, knowledge acquisition, and problem-solving skills (Clark, Tanner-Smith, and Killingsworth 2016; Prensky 2001).”
Gupta, A., Min, W., Carpenter, D., Azevedo, R., & Lester, J. C. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-98459-4_32 · Cited by 2
Elemental Home: A Video Game to Explore Chemistry in Everyday Life
Juárez-González, P., Cano, M. J., Robles, D. C., & Mariscal, A. J. F. (2025) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.5c00168 · Cited by 1
Enhancing stealth assessment in game-based learning through goal recognition
Gupta, A., Min, W., Carpenter, D., Azevedo, R., & Lester, J. C. (2025) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2025.2555246 · Cited by 1
“Digital games are increasingly recognized for their ability to create engaging educational experiences that support learning across different domains (Clark et al., 2016; Qian & Clark, 2016; Plass et al., 2020).”
MathFlowLens: a classification and visualization tool for analyzing students’ procedural pathways
Pradhan, S. P., Ottmar, E., Gurung, A., & Lee, J. (2025) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-025-10557-z · Cited by 2
van der Linden, A., Meulenbroeks, R. R., & van Joolingen, W. (2025) · International Journal of Physics & Chemistry Education · doi:10.51724/ijpce.v17i2.364 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Clark, D. B., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Killingsworth, S. S.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Vanderbilt University
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 2016-03
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 79-122
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- PMC
- PMC4748544
- OpenAlex
- W2099460238
- Cited by
- 1,274
- References
- 146
- Citations by year
- 2026: 159 · 2025: 129 · 2024: 126 · 2023: 120 · 2022: 125 · 2021: 163 · 2020: 125 · 2019: 122 · 2018: 103 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 28
- FWCI
- 169.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Games and Media
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- video games, game-based learning, educational game design, game mechanics, game affordances, learning outcomes, K-16 education
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