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Digital Games, Design, and Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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In this meta-analysis, we systematically reviewed research on digital games and learning for K–16 students. We synthesized comparisons of game versus nongame conditions (i.e., media comparisons) and comparisons of augmented games versus standard game designs (i.e., value-added comparisons). We used random-effects meta-regression models with robust variance estimates to summarize overall effects and explore potential moderator effects. Results from media comparisons indicated that digital games significantly enhanced student learning relative to nongame conditions ([Formula: see text] = 0.33, 95% confidence interval [0.19, 0.48], k = 57, n = 209). Results from value-added comparisons indicated significant learning benefits associated with augmented game designs ([Formula: see text] = 0.34, 95% confidence interval [0.17, 0.51], k = 20, n = 40). Moderator analyses demonstrated that effects varied across various game mechanics characteristics, visual and narrative characteristics, and research quality characteristics. Taken together, the results highlight the affordances of games for learning as well as the key role of design beyond medium.
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![Figure 2. Scatter plot of pretest-adjusted posttest effect sizes and overall contextualization aggregate score for digital game versus nongame conditions (media comparisons). Note. Each effect size shown proportionate to its weight in the meta-analysis. Slope coefficient from meta-regression with robust variance estimation b = −0.07 (p = .01, 95% CI [−0.12, −0.01]).](/paper-figures/308463f1df4b46ffa9b948a3ff86b75a/digital-games-design-and-learning-a-systematic-review-and-meta-analysis-figure-2.jpg)
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“Inclusion of game fiction is closely related to the use of narrative anchors and has been shown to be effective for learning as it situates and anchors learning in a context (Clark et al. 2016) and can further serve as a cognitive framework for problem solving (Dickey 2006).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“In addition, the results of the summary effect analyses were similar to results from meta-analyses conducted in the context of games (see Clark et al. 2016;Wouters et al. 2013), indicating that the power of games can be transferred to non-game contexts by using game design elements.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“This result for behavioral learning outcomes is in line with evidence from the context of games, showing that combinations of competition and collaboration in games are promising for learning (Clark et al. 2016).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“Clark et al. (2016) included competition in their meta-analysis on digital games and found that combinations of competition and collaboration as well as single-player games without competitive elements can outperform games with mere competition.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
In the citing paper
“The reviews have also documented the effects on students' learning outcomes and the key role of gamified designs (Alsawaier, 2018;Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016).”
From Towards a motivational design? Connecting gamification user types and online learning activities (2020) · cites this paper as Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016
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“Digital game-based learning (DGBL) has been gaining popularity in educational settings due to its ability to enhance student engagement, motivation, and learning performance (Clark et al., 2016; Connolly et al., 2012).”
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“However, Clark et al. (2016) suggested that one should also assess to which extent the trained skills have been transferred to other, more general skills, such as math and reading competence in the current context (i.e., ‘far transfer’).”
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RetractedDesigning Games for Moral Learning and Knowledge Building
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How design features in digital math games support learning and mathematics connections
Moyer‐Packenham, P. S., Lommatsch, C. W., Litster, K., Ashby, J., Bullock, E. P., Roxburgh, A. L., Shumway, J. F., Speed, E. A., Covington, B. P., Hartmann, C., et al. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.09.036 · Cited by 90
“Well-designed digital math games, whose learning designs and mathematics rules and principles are well-integrated with gameplay, can motivate children and result in positive learning outcomes (Boyce, 2014; Clark et al., 2016; Habgood & Ainsworth, 2011).”
BackgroundDisciplinary integration of digital games for science learning
Clark, D. B., Sengupta, P., Brady, C. E., Martinez-Garza, M. M., & Killingsworth, S. S. (2015) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-014-0014-4 · Cited by 94
Self-citationThompson, C. G., & von Gillern, S. (2020) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100332 · Cited by 105
Vankúš, P. (2021) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math9090986 · Cited by 129
Zheng, Y., Zhang, J., Li, Y., Wu, X., Ding, R., Luo, X., Liu, P., & Huang, J. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23490 · Cited by 159
“This outcome highlights digital games ’ positive impacts in the context of education [44,83,96].”
BackgroundSpielerische Ansätze in Prävention und Gesundheitsförderung: Serious Games und Gamification
Tolks, D., Lampert, C., Dadaczynski, K., Maslon, E., Paulus, P., & Sailer, M. (2020) · Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz · doi:10.1007/s00103-020-03156-1 · Cited by 93
Asbell-Clarke, J., Rowe, E., Almeda, V., Edwards, T., Bardar, E., Gasca, S., Baker, R. S., & Scruggs, R. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106587 · Cited by 88
LudusScope: Accessible Interactive Smartphone Microscopy for Life-Science Education
Kim, H., Gerber, L. C., Chiu, D., Lee, S. A., Cira, N., Xia, S. Y., & Riedel-Kruse, I. H. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0162602 · Cited by 83
Understanding the role of competition in video gameplay satisfaction
Sepehr, S., & Head, M. M. (2017) · Information & Management · doi:10.1016/j.im.2017.09.007 · Cited by 84
Talan, T., Doğan, Y., & Batdı, V. (2020) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2020.1743798 · Cited by 95
Ade-Ojo, G. O., Markowski, M., Essex, R., Stiell, M., & Jameson, J. (2022) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12653 · Cited by 104
The effects of a bike active video game on players' physical activity and motivation
Pasco, D., Roure, C., Kermarrec, G., Pope, Z., & Gao, Z. (2016) · Journal of sport and health science/Journal of Sport and Health Science · doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2016.11.007 · Cited by 77
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“However, keeping the balance between educational games and instructional material without game elements when a comparison is warranted is also very challenging (i.e., media comparison research sensu Connolly et al., 2012; Li and Tsai, 2013; Clark et al., 2016).”
BackgroundBonacini, E., & Giaccone, S. C. (2021) · Cultural Trends · doi:10.1080/09548963.2021.1910490 · Cited by 80
“Their e ff ectiveness as learning tools is highlighted in the literature with reference to a broad range of fi elds: education, defense, health care, research, cultural heritage and tourism (Clark et al., 2016; Connolly et al., 2012; de Byl, 2013; Karagiorgas & Niemann, 2017).”
BackgroundLearning analytics for online game-Based learning: a systematic literature review
Banihashem, S. K., Dehghanzadeh, H., Clark, D. B., Noroozi, O., & Biemans, H. J. A. (2023) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2023.2255301 · Cited by 98
“…in enhancing various cognitive and a ff ective learning outcomes across educational settings including in higher education (Abdul Jabbar and Felicia 2015; Clark, Tanner-Smith, and Killingsworth 2016; Foster and Shah 2020; Huizenga et al. 2009; Lei et al. 2022; Tokac, Novak, and Thompson 2019).”
Self-citationLester, D., Skulmoski, G. J., Fisher, D., Mehrotra, V., Lim, I., Lang, A., & Keogh, J. (2023) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13311 · Cited by 76
Self-Regulation in Computer-Assisted Learning Systems
Azevedo, R., Mudrick, N. V., Taub, M., & Bradbury, A. E. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235631.024 · Cited by 80
Game‐based learning has good chemistry with chemistry education: A three‐level meta‐analysis
Hu, Y., Gallagher, T. J., Wouters, P., van der Schaaf, M. F., & Kester, L. (2022) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21765 · Cited by 109
Chang, C.-S., Chung, C., & Chang, J. A. (2020) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-020-09784-3 · Cited by 77
“For example, a meta-analysis conducted by Clark et al. (2016) indicated that digital games considerably improve student learning compared with nongame conditions.”
BackgroundA Systematic Literature Review of Game-Based Assessment Studies: Trends and Challenges
Gomez, M. J., Ruipérez‐Valiente, J. A., & Clemente, F. J. G. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2022.3226661 · Cited by 73
Using video games to combine learning and assessment in mathematics education
Kiili, K. J. M., Devlin, K., Perttula, A., Tuomi, P., & Lindstedt, A. (2015) · International Journal of Serious Games · doi:10.17083/ijsg.v2i4.98 · Cited by 72
Assessment and Adaptation in Games
Shute, V. J., Ke, F., & Wang, L. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-39298-1_4 · Cited by 72
Can cooperative video games encourage social and motivational inclusion of at‐risk students?
Hanghøj, T., Lieberoth, A., & Misfeldt, M. (2018) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12642 · Cited by 88
Lu, S.-J., Liu, Y., Chen, P., & Hsieh, M.-R. (2018) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2018.1541908 · Cited by 88
Taub, M., Mudrick, N. V., Azevedo, R., Millar, G. C., Rowe, J., & Lester, J. C. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.038 · Cited by 81
“…(d ¼ 0.29, p < 0.01; Wouters et al., 2013), yet moderate to large effect sizes for knowledge acquisition (g ¼ 0.33, 95% CI, [0.19, 0.48], k ¼ 57, n ¼ 209; Clark et al., 2016) and retention (d ¼ 0.36, p < 0.01; Wouters et al., 2013), compared to conventional instructional methods (e.g.,…”
ResultInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Clark, D. B., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Killingsworth, S. S.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Vanderbilt University
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 2016-03
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 79-122
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- PMC
- PMC4748544
- OpenAlex
- W2099460238
- Cited by
- 1,274
- References
- 146
- Citations by year
- 2026: 159 · 2025: 129 · 2024: 126 · 2023: 120 · 2022: 125 · 2021: 163 · 2020: 125 · 2019: 122 · 2018: 103 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 28
- FWCI
- 169.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Games and Media
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- video games, game-based learning, educational game design, game mechanics, game affordances, learning outcomes, K-16 education
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