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Digital Games, Design, and Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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In this meta-analysis, we systematically reviewed research on digital games and learning for K–16 students. We synthesized comparisons of game versus nongame conditions (i.e., media comparisons) and comparisons of augmented games versus standard game designs (i.e., value-added comparisons). We used random-effects meta-regression models with robust variance estimates to summarize overall effects and explore potential moderator effects. Results from media comparisons indicated that digital games significantly enhanced student learning relative to nongame conditions ([Formula: see text] = 0.33, 95% confidence interval [0.19, 0.48], k = 57, n = 209). Results from value-added comparisons indicated significant learning benefits associated with augmented game designs ([Formula: see text] = 0.34, 95% confidence interval [0.17, 0.51], k = 20, n = 40). Moderator analyses demonstrated that effects varied across various game mechanics characteristics, visual and narrative characteristics, and research quality characteristics. Taken together, the results highlight the affordances of games for learning as well as the key role of design beyond medium.
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![Figure 2. Scatter plot of pretest-adjusted posttest effect sizes and overall contextualization aggregate score for digital game versus nongame conditions (media comparisons). Note. Each effect size shown proportionate to its weight in the meta-analysis. Slope coefficient from meta-regression with robust variance estimation b = −0.07 (p = .01, 95% CI [−0.12, −0.01]).](/paper-figures/308463f1df4b46ffa9b948a3ff86b75a/digital-games-design-and-learning-a-systematic-review-and-meta-analysis-figure-2.jpg)
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“Inclusion of game fiction is closely related to the use of narrative anchors and has been shown to be effective for learning as it situates and anchors learning in a context (Clark et al. 2016) and can further serve as a cognitive framework for problem solving (Dickey 2006).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“In addition, the results of the summary effect analyses were similar to results from meta-analyses conducted in the context of games (see Clark et al. 2016;Wouters et al. 2013), indicating that the power of games can be transferred to non-game contexts by using game design elements.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“This result for behavioral learning outcomes is in line with evidence from the context of games, showing that combinations of competition and collaboration in games are promising for learning (Clark et al. 2016).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
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“Clark et al. (2016) included competition in their meta-analysis on digital games and found that combinations of competition and collaboration as well as single-player games without competitive elements can outperform games with mere competition.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Clark et al. 2016
In the citing paper
“The reviews have also documented the effects on students' learning outcomes and the key role of gamified designs (Alsawaier, 2018;Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016).”
From Towards a motivational design? Connecting gamification user types and online learning activities (2020) · cites this paper as Clark, Tanner-Smith & Killingsworth 2016
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Hovardas, T., ter Vrugte, J., Zacharia, Z. C., & de Jong, T. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818630-5.14074-6 · Cited by 5
The Three Steps to Trans Death: Introducing Trans Cyber-Necropolitics in Digital Media
Liang, S., Cormier, M. V., Dugas, P. O. T., & Bohrer, R. (2025) · ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction · doi:10.1145/3745767 · Cited by 5
Storai, F., Rossi, F., Mori, S., & Toci, V. (2023) · Research on Education and Media · doi:10.2478/rem-2023-0008 · Cited by 4
Viability of Using Digital Games for Improving Team Cohesion: A Systematic Review of the Literature
Kovalčík, J., Švecová, M., & Kabát, M. (2023) · Acta Ludologica · doi:10.34135/actaludologica.2023-6-1.46-65 · Cited by 4
Towards Sustainable Serious Games
Göbl, B., Hauge, J. B., Ștefan, I. A., & Söbke, H. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-8248-6_36 · Cited by 4
STEM Education: Curriculum and Pedagogy
DeCoito, I. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-60676-2_4 · Cited by 7
DiGIBST: An inquiry-based digital game-based learning pedagogical model for science teaching
Caparoso, J. K. V., & Orleans, A. V. (2024) · STEM Education · doi:10.3934/steme.2024017 · Cited by 8
Enhancing French Preschoolers’ Early Literacy Skills with a New Educational Classroom Application
Thomas, A., Hoareau, L., Jarlégan, A., Hubert, B., Luxembourger, C., & Tazouti, Y. (2025) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2025.2449694 · Cited by 5
“Recent meta-analyses found medium-sized impacts of educational applications use on student learning outcomes (g = .49) and motivation (g = .36) (Clark et al., 2016; Sailer & Homner, 2020).”
Huang, D.-P., & Katz, J. E. (2025) · Big Data and Cognitive Computing · doi:10.3390/bdcc9040078 · Cited by 6
“Moreover, designing learning games also enhances collaboration, creativity, and intrinsic motivation, as students feel empowered by creating meaningful learning experiences for others [7].”
Wenzel, A., Geiger, J.-M., & Liening, A. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100738 · Cited by 12
Skelling-Desmeules, Y. (2018) · Neuroeducation · doi:10.24046/neuroed.20180501.7 · Cited by 4
“…nombre d’études portant spécifiquement sur l’enseignement des sciences par le jeu vidéo (Li et Tsai, 2013; Potvin et Hasni, 2014) et le faible nombre d’études ciblant les impacts des jeux vidéo sur l’intérêt plutôt que l’apprentissage (Clark et al., 2015; Li et Tsai, 2013; Wouters et al., 2013).”
BackgroundHafis, M., Tolle, H., & Supianto, A. A. (2019) · Journal of Information Technology and Computer Science · doi:10.25126/jitecs.201943134 · Cited by 4
Bawa, P., & Brockport, S. (2021) · Computers and Education Open · doi:10.1016/j.caeo.2021.100034 · Cited by 5
Leonardou, A., Rigou, M., & Garofalakis, J. D. (2021) · International Conference on Information, Intelligence, Systems & Applications (IISA) · doi:10.1109/iisa52424.2021.9555513 · Cited by 4
Toward a Mid-Range Design Theory for Developing Pedagogically Effective Serious Games
Schumacher, T., Festing, M., & Bick, M. (2023) · Information Systems Management · doi:10.1080/10580530.2023.2267762 · Cited by 8
“…affective, and behavioral learning outcomes (Garris et al., 2002; Lamb et al., 2018)—as meta-analytic studies indicate (Boyle et al., 2016; Clark et al., 2016; Connolly et al., 2012; Lamb et al., 2018; Riopel et al., 2019; Wouters et al., 2013; Zhonggen, 2019) These studies demonstrate…”
Online Game-Based Parental Groups: The Experiences of First-Time Expectant Parents
Kokkinen, K., Malinen, K., Sevón, E., Hämäläinen, R., & Rönkä, A. K. (2024) · The Journal of Perinatal Education · doi:10.1891/jpe-2023-0017 · Cited by 4
Beyond Play: Researching the Transformative Power of Digital Gaming in Deeply Mediatized Societies
Schwarzenegger, C., Koenen, E., Radde-Antweiler, K., & Wolf, K. D. (2024) · Media and Communication · doi:10.17645/mac.8800 · Cited by 4
“Occasionally, beneficial consequences are noted, particularly in the context of informal learning and education (Clark et al., 2016; Ito et al., 2009; L.‐H. Wang et al., 2022; Wolf & Wudarski, 2018).”
Meier, J. V., & Kaspar, K. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0316567 · Cited by 6
Steinkuehler, C. A., Anderson, C. G., Reitman, J. G., Lee, J. S., Wu, M., Wells, G., & Gardner, R. T. (2023) · The Journal of Interactive Learning Research · doi:10.70725/575686oceamt · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Clark, D. B., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Killingsworth, S. S.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Vanderbilt University
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 2016-03
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 79-122
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- PMC
- PMC4748544
- OpenAlex
- W2099460238
- Cited by
- 1,274
- References
- 146
- Citations by year
- 2026: 159 · 2025: 129 · 2024: 126 · 2023: 120 · 2022: 125 · 2021: 163 · 2020: 125 · 2019: 122 · 2018: 103 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 28
- FWCI
- 169.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Games and Media
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- video games, game-based learning, educational game design, game mechanics, game affordances, learning outcomes, K-16 education
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