Biorefineries: Achievements and challenges for a bio-based economy

Calvo-Flores, Francisco G.; Martin-Martinez, Francisco J.

doi:10.3389/fchem.2022.973417

Cited by 176Catalysis for Biomass ConversionBiofuel production and bioconversionBioeconomy and Sustainability Development

Biorefineries: Achievements and challenges for a bio-based economy

Open access

Calvo-Flores, Francisco G., Martin-Martinez, Francisco J.·2022·Frontiers in Chemistry

DOI 10.3389/fchem.2022.973417PMC PMC9686847

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Abstract

Climate change, socioeconomical pressures, and new policy and legislation are driving a decarbonization process across industries, with a critical shift from a fossil-based economy toward a biomass-based one. This new paradigm implies not only a gradual phasing out of fossil fuels as a source of energy but also a move away from crude oil as a source of platform chemicals, polymers, drugs, solvents and many other critical materials, and consumer goods that are ubiquitous in our everyday life. If we are to achieve the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals, crude oil must be substituted by renewable sources, and in this evolution, biorefineries arise as the critical alternative to traditional refineries for producing fuels, chemical building blocks, and materials out of non-edible biomass and biomass waste. State-of-the-art biorefineries already produce cost-competitive chemicals and materials, but other products remain challenging from the economic point of view, or their scaled-up production processes are still not sufficiently developed. In particular, lignin’s depolymerization is a required milestone for the success of integrated biorefineries, and better catalysts and processes must be improved to prepare bio-based aromatic simple molecules. This review summarizes current challenges in biorefinery systems, while it suggests possible directions and goals for sustainable development in the years to come.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review summarizes biorefinery systems as the sustainable alternative to fossil refineries, covering platforms, products, and challenges for a bio-based economy. It concludes that while many bio-based fuels, chemicals, polymers, and solvents are already produced, cost competitiveness, scale-up, and especially lignin depolymerization remain key barriers.

Key findings

State-of-the-art biorefineries already produce cost-competitive chemicals and materials, but other products remain economically challenging or lack sufficiently developed scaled-up processes; lignin depolymerization is described as a required milestone for integrated biorefineries.
Lignin is the second most abundant biopolymer and the first source of aromatic chemical moieties excluding crude oil; approximately 50 million tons are produced annually as a pulp and paper byproduct. Reductive catalytic fractionation (RCF) is a promising lignin-first strategy yielding deeply depolymerized lignin and nearly theoretical amounts of lignin monomers with reductive catalysts.
The U.S. Department of Energy identified 30 bio-based chemical building blocks in 2004 from an initial screening of almost 50 substances, later reduced to 12 in 2007; most have been commercialized or are on their way to commercialization. Reported production figures include EU bioethanol for fuel at roughly 5.6 billion liters in 2021, U.S. bioethanol at about 56 billion liters in the same period, and EU biodiesel at around 3.4 million metric tons in 2020.
Biorefineries are classified by feedstock and products into phase I (single feedstock, primary product), phase II (single feedstock, several products), and phase III (multiple feedstocks, multiple products); platforms include thermochemical and biotechnological, with the C5/C6 carbohydrate platform best developed while the lignin platform remains unsatisfactory chemically and biotechnologically.

Methods

Review article; no experimental design, sample, or primary data are reported. It synthesizes literature on biorefinery origins, classification, thermochemical and biotechnological platforms, products, and challenges.
Main analysis is narrative and descriptive, using cited examples and tables/figures to summarize feedstocks, processes, platforms, and product families; no systematic search or quantitative meta-analysis is described.

Limitations

Stated: bio-based production costs still exceed petrochemical alternatives, and bio-based products need to be proven to outperform petrochemical counterparts; lignin depolymerization lacks satisfactory chemical or biotechnological routes; levulinic acid scale-up is hampered by low yields; second-generation cellulosic ethanol expansion is constrained by high costs and EU policy uncertainty.
Stated: protein extraction from agri-food residues is mostly laboratory-scale or conceptual, and recovering inorganic nutrients from biorefineries remains challenging.
Evident from text: as a narrative review, it does not report a systematic literature search, inclusion criteria, or quantitative synthesis, so coverage and conclusions depend on selected cited examples.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fchem.2022.973417

Cites

153 of 153 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 58 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

Interpretationcitation
The greatest challenge in lignin-based technologies is the production of platform chemicals, especially those with aromatic functional groups such as benzene, toluene, and xylenes (BTX).
“Despite its potential and the existence of already developed applications, the greatest challenge in lignin-based technologies is the production of platform chemicals, especially those with aromatic functional groups such as benzene, toluene, and xylenes, i.e., BTX (Liu and Ragauskas, 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Liu and Ragauskas, 2021
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Premisecitation
Most of the research focus has been traditionally placed on the beta-O-4 bond in the lignin structure.
“Moreover, most of the research focus has been traditionally placed on the beta-O-4 bond in the lignin structure (Sanchez-Gonzalez et al., 2017), but other relevant bonds need to be targeted as well.”
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- cites Sanchez-Gonzalez et al., 2017 source
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Interpretationreasoning
Algae biomass can be relatively easily transformed in a biorefinery because of its lignocellulose-free nature.
“Algae biomass can be relatively easily transformed in a biorefinery because of its lignocellulose-free nature.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Premisecitation
Glycerol is a building block suitable for a multitude of transformations to produce many valuable chemical compounds.
“It is not only a byproduct but also a building block suitable of a multitude of transformations to produce many valuable chemical compounds (Posada et al., 2012) (D’Angelo et al., 2018).”
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- cites Posada et al., 2012 source
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- cites D’Angelo et al., 2018 source
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Premisecitation
Reductive catalytic fractionation (RCF) is a promising lignin-first biorefinery strategy that yields a deeply depolymerized lignin and nearly theoretical amounts of lignin monomers with reductive catalysts.
“Reductive catalytic fractionation (RCF) is a promising lignin-first biorefinery strategy that yields a deeply depolymerized lignin and nearly theoretical amounts of lignin monomers with reductive catalysts (Qiu et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Qiu et al., 2020 source
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Interpretationcitation
Based on the status of the 12 chemicals listed in 2004 and a further revision in 2010, most of these building blocks have been commercialized or are on their way to commercialization.
“Based on the status of the 12 chemicals listed in 2004 (Choi et al., 2015), and considering a further revision that took place in 2010 (Bozell and Petersen, 2010), it is a fact that most of these building blocks have been commercialized or are on their way to commercialization.”
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- cites Choi et al., 2015 source
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- cites Bozell and Petersen, 2010 source
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Premisecitation
In a following report in 2007, the initial group of 30 bio-based chemical building blocks was further reduced to 12 substances considered preferential because of their versatility as synthetic building blocks and their competitive cost compared to petrochemical alternatives.
“In a following report in 2007 (Holladay et al., 2007), this initial group was further reduced to 12 substances that were considered preferential because of their versatility as synthetic building blocks, and their competitive cost compared to those of petrochemical industry alternatives (Table 3).”
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- cites Holladay et al., 2007 source
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Premisecitation
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) in 2004 identified a group of 30 bio-based chemical building blocks from an initial screening of almost 50 substances.
“The DOE identified a group of 30 bio-based chemical building blocks (Werpy and Petersen, 2004) from an initial screening of almost 50 substances (Table 2).”
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- cites Werpy and Petersen, 2004
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Premisecitation
One of the main challenges for lignin valorization is the recondensation processes, i.e., new carbon-carbon bond formation that occurs during depolymerization in many of the most traditional fractionation processes, i.e., organosolv, kraft, and sulfite.
“One of the main challenges for lignin valorization is the recondensation processes, i.e., new carbon–carbon bond formation that occurs during depolymerization in many of the most traditional fractionation processes, i.e., organosolv, kraft, and sulfite (Guadix-Montero and Sankar, 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Guadix-Montero and Sankar, 2018
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Premisecitation
Glycerol is a versatile building block susceptible to be transformed into other valuable molecules.
“In the context of an integrated installation, glycerol is a versatile building block (Mota et al., 2017) susceptible to be transformed into other valuable molecules (Takkellapati et al., 2018).”
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- cites Mota et al., 2017 source
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- cites Takkellapati et al., 2018 source
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Premisecitation
Plant- and algae-based biorefineries are already producing this set of products, with special focus on valorizing triglycerides.
“Plant- and algae-based biorefineries are already producing this set of products (Caullet and Le Nôtre, 2015), with special focus on valorizing triglycerides, the main components of oils and fats (Figure 4).”
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- cites Caullet and Le Nôtre, 2015
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Interpretationreasoning
For lignin, neither chemical nor biotechnological platforms provide satisfactory results.
“For lignin, neither chemically nor biotechnologically platforms provide satisfactory results, despite lignin being the most abundant source of aromatic moieties in nature.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Interpretationreasoning
Nowadays, biorefineries have achieved enough degree of development to start providing reliable alternatives to most of the products needed in daily life.
“Nowadays, biorefineries have achieved enough degree of development to start providing reliable alternatives to most of the products needed in our daily day life.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Premisecitation
Digestates can have an N:P:K ratio similar to mineral fertilizers.
“In fact, some studies have shown digestates with an N:P:K ratio similar to mineral fertilizers (Santamaria-Fernandez et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Santamaria-Fernandez et al., 2020 source
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Interpretationnone given
The biorefinery system is not yet at the point of displacing existing fossil refinery technologies.
“However, our biorefinery system is not yet at the point of displacing existing fossil refinery technologies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Premisecitation
Agro-industrial byproducts contain a variety of valuable products such as sugars, minerals, proteins, vitamins, and pigments, which makes them of high value in biorefining processes.
“They contain a variety of valuable products such as sugars, minerals, proteins, vitamins, and pigments, which makes them of high value in biorefining processes (Philippini et al., 2020).”
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- cites Philippini et al., 2020 source
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Interpretationreasoning
The same technological capability does not apply to the lignin platform.
“In the case of carbohydrate-containing biomass, the current technological developments can perform almost anything, but the same does not apply to the lignin platform.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Interpretationcitation
The lack of high yields in the preparation of levulinic acid from biomass feedstock is still hampering its scale-up and commercialization.
“Despite its potential and proven applications, the lack of high yields in the preparation of levulinic acid from biomass feedstock is still hampering its scale-up and commercialization.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Dutta and Bhat, 2021
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Premisecitation
Anaerobic digestion is becoming a good alternative to mineralize nutrients in biorefinery wastes.
“Anaerobic digestion is becoming a good alternative to mineralize nutrients in biorefinery wastes (Adani et al., 2020).”
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- cites Adani et al., 2020 source
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Interpretationcitation
The large-scale feasibility of integrating protein extraction methods in the biorefinery of agri-food residues still requires further research.
“Their large-scale feasibility still requires further research (Contreras et al., 2019).”
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- cites Contreras et al., 2019 source
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Interpretationreasoning
Enabling a scaled-up lignin platform to produce aromatic molecules is probably one of the most important challenges for the next decade in this field.
“Enabling a scaled-up lignin platform to produce aromatic molecules is probably one of the most important challenges for the next decade in this field.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Rests on an assumption: Lignin is the most abundant source of aromatic moieties in nature.
Premisecitation
Recovering agricultural nutrients from biorefineries for substitution of conventional fertilizers is a challenge for the next few years.
“Recovering agricultural nutrients from biorefineries, for a substitution of conventional fertilizers is a challenge for the next few years (Carey et al., 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Carey et al., 2016 source
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- Rests on an assumption: Organic fertilizers from biorefineries are quite easy to prepare.
- Rests on an assumption: Recovering inorganic nutrients with current technologies is challenging.
Premisecitation
Bio-based fertilizers and additives for farming and gardening are a safe alternative to valorize biological wastes across different biorefinery platforms.
“The production of bio-based fertilizers and additives for farming and gardening is a safe alternative to valorize biological wastes across different biorefinery platforms (Chojnacka et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Chojnacka et al., 2020 source
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Interpretationcitation
Biorefineries provide a more sustainable alternative to produce green solvents that are eco-friendly and less toxic than conventional ones.
“Thus, biorefineries provide a more sustainable alternative also to produce green solvents that are eco-friendly and less toxic than conventional ones (Clarke et al., 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Clarke et al., 2018 source
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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 30
May combine two claims. 18

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationreasoning
Biorefineries are the critical alternative to traditional refineries for producing fuels, chemical building blocks, and materials out of non-edible biomass and biomass waste.
“If we are to achieve the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals, crude oil must be substituted by renewable sources, and in this evolution, biorefineries arise as the critical alternative to traditional refineries for producing fuels, chemical building blocks, and materials out of non-edible biomass and biomass waste.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationreasoning
Biorefineries emerge as a critical solution to co-produce materials, sustainable fuels, and platform chemicals from a great diversity of non-eatable biomass feedstocks.
“To this end, biorefineries emerge as a critical solution to co-produce materials, sustainable fuels, and platform chemicals from a great diversity of non-eatable biomass feedstocks.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
According to the number of feedstocks processed and the number of products produced, biorefineries are classified into phase I, phase II, and phase III.
“Moreover, according to the number of feedstocks processed and the number of products produced, biorefineries are classified into phase I, phase II, and phase III (Wagemann and Tippkötter, 2019), (Oecd and OECD, 2018), (Cherubini et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- cites Wagemann and Tippkötter, 2019
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- cites Oecd and OECD, 2018
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- cites Cherubini et al., 2009 source
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Premisecitation
Phase I biorefineries use a single feedstock material to prepare a primary product.
“Thus, phase I biorefineries use a single feedstock material to prepare a primary product, such as biodiesel biorefineries that produce biofuel from vegetable oils (Inamuddin et al., 2021), (Caullet and Le Nôtre, 2015) or from algae (Inamuddin et al., 2021; Konur, 2021).”
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- cites Inamuddin et al., 2021 source
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- cites Caullet and Le Nôtre, 2015
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Interpretationnone given
State-of-the-art biorefineries already produce cost-competitive chemicals and materials, but other products remain challenging from the economic point of view, or their scaled-up production processes are still not sufficiently developed.
“State-of-the-art biorefineries already produce cost-competitive chemicals and materials, but other products remain challenging from the economic point of view, or their scaled-up production processes are still not sufficiently developed.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Biorefineries are the sustainable alternative to the traditional refineries of the petrochemical industries.
“Thus, biorefineries are the sustainable alternative to the traditional refineries of the petrochemical industries (Wagemann and Tippkötter, 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Wagemann and Tippkötter, 2019
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Interpretationnone given
Lignin's depolymerization is a required milestone for the success of integrated biorefineries.
“In particular, lignin’s depolymerization is a required milestone for the success of integrated biorefineries, and better catalysts and processes must be improved to prepare bio-based aromatic simple molecules.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
In thermochemical platforms, biomass undergoes high-temperature processing, many times combined with high pressures, and with or without the presence of solvents and catalysts.
“In thermochemical platforms, biomass undergoes high-temperature processing, many times combined with high pressures, and with or without the presence of solvents and catalysts (Salan, 2017).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Salan, 2017 source
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Premisenone given
Hydrogen is the cleanest fuel because when consumed in a fuel cell, it produces only water as an oxidized byproduct.
“Hydrogen: The cleanest fuel because when consumed in a fuel cell, it produces only water as an oxidized byproduct.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
The valorization of products obtained from carbon dioxide is at different stages of development: production of organic acids, carbamates, alcohols, aldehydes, and dimethoxyethane (DME) is at laboratory scale; demonstration plants exist for methanol, formic acid, carbonates, and polycarbonate; only some products such as urea and salicylic acid are being commercialized.
“The production of organic acids, carbamates, alcohols, aldehydes, and dimethoxyethane (DME) is in the laboratory scale. There are demonstration plants to produce methanol, formic acid, carbonates, and polycarbonate, while only some products such as urea and salicylic acid are being commercialized.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Dahmen et al., 2017
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Interpretationcitation
Expansion of second-generation cellulosic bioethanol production remains constrained due to high costs and a lack of certainty in the EU policy-making process, which is one of the challenges for second-generation biorefineries.
“Expansion of second-generation cellulosic bioethanol production remains constrained due to high costs and a lack of certainty in the EU policy-making process, which is one of the challenges for second-generation biorefineries (fuel ethanol production in the U.S. 1980–2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites fuel ethanol production in the U.S. 1980–2021
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning
Lignin's relevance as a renewable raw material is unquestionable, and crucial for the success of integrated biorefineries in the context of a bio-based economy.
“Hence, lignin’s relevance as a renewable raw material is unquestionable, and in fact crucial for the success of integrated biorefineries in the context of a bio-based economy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Rests on an assumption: Lignin is the second most abundant biopolymer in nature after cellulose, and the first source of aromatic chemical moieties, excluding crude oil.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation
Bioethanol has become one of the most relevant bio-based compounds, not only because of its application as fuel but also due to its potential as raw material for subsequent transformations into other platform chemicals and solvents.
“The scenario has changed, and bioethanol (Edeh, 2021) has become one of the most relevant bio-based compounds, not only because of its application as fuel but also due to its potential as raw material for subsequent transformations into other platform chemicals and solvents (Aeschelmann et al., 2017; Baltus, 2017), (Eswari et al., 2020), (Galanakis, 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- cites Edeh, 2021 source
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- cites Aeschelmann et al., 2017; Baltus, 2017
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- cites Eswari et al., 2020 source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Phase II biorefineries carry out a set of processes to produce different products from a single feedstock material.
“Phase II biorefineries carry out a set of processes to produce different products from a single feedstock material, for example, processing grain to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide (Kamm and Kamm, 2004).”
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- cites Kamm and Kamm, 2004
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Premisecitation
Approximately 50 million tons of lignin are currently produced annually as a byproduct of the pulp and paper industry.
“In fact, approximately 50 million tons of lignin are currently produced annually as a byproduct of the pulp and paper industry (Bajpai, 2016).”
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- cites Bajpai, 2016 source
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Premisecitation
Biomass that breaks down under anaerobic conditions generates a mixture primarily consisting of carbon dioxide and methane in an average proportion that ranges between 50% and 85%.
“Biomass that breakdown under such conditions generates a mixture primarily consisting of carbon dioxide and methane in an average proportion that ranges between 50% and 85% (Sindhu et al., 2019).”
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- cites Sindhu et al., 2019 source
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Premisecitation
Biodiesel has become one of the more popular biofuels.
“Chemically, biodiesel is a mixture of methyl and/or ethyl esters of fatty acids obtained by transesterification of triglycerides and has become one of the more popular biofuels (Shahid et al., 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Shahid et al., 2021 source
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Interpretationnone given
Valorization of five-carbon (C5) and six-carbon (C6) sugars from several sources is probably the best-developed branch in current biorefineries.
“Valorization of five-carbon (C5) and six-carbon (C6) sugars from several sources is probably the best-developed branch in current biorefineries.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Lactic acid is a versatile compound for the synthesis of many fine chemicals and is used as a monomer for the synthesis of biocompatible polymers.
“It is a versatile compound for the synthesis of many fine chemicals (Datta and Henry, 2006), and it is used as a monomer for the synthesis of biocompatible polymers (Sin and Tueen, 2019) (Abedi and Hashemi, 2020)).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- cites Datta and Henry, 2006
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- cites Sin and Tueen, 2019
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- cites Abedi and Hashemi, 2020
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Premisecitation
Phase III biorefineries produce multiple types of products from multiple feedstock materials through a diverse processing technology.
“Phase III biorefineries produce multiple types of products from multiple feedstock materials through a diverse processing technology (Fernando et al., 2006).”
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- cites Fernando et al., 2006 source
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Premisecitation
Lignocellulosic biomass is the most cost-efficient and highly renewable natural resource worldwide.
“This is the most cost-efficient and highly renewable natural resource worldwide (Qian, 2014), and it constitutes a ubiquitous source of carbohydrates that can be isolated and transformed into valuable chemicals within biorefineries.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Qian, 2014 source
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Premisecitation
There are several possibilities for exploiting algae, including triglycerides for biodiesel production, fertilizers, food industry additives, nutritional supplements, and valuable molecules such as chlorophyll-a, phycocyanin, ß-carotene, or γ-linolenic acid.
“There are several possibilities for exploitation (Chew et al., 2017), for example, triglycerides for biodiesel production, fertilizers, food industry additives, nutritional supplements, or valuable molecules such as chlorophyll-a, phycocyanin, ß-carotene, or γ-linolenic acid, to mention a few (Laurens et al., 2017).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Chew et al., 2017 source
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- cites Laurens et al., 2017 source
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Interpretationnone given
Biotechnological platforms are mostly focused on the preparation of high-value chemicals, rather than biofuels.
“These platforms are mostly focused on the preparation of high-value chemicals, rather than biofuels.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning
Addressing the recondensation issue is crucial for the development of lignin valorization strategies.
“Addressing this issue is crucial for the development of lignin valorization strategies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
The products obtained from oleochemicals are cost- and performance-competitive with similar products from the petrochemical industry, while being non-toxic and environment-friendly.
“The products obtained are cost- and performance-competitive with similar products from the petrochemical industry, while being non-toxic and environment-friendly (Tesser et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Tesser et al., 2020 source
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Premisecitation
Algae can be produced on a large scale in all seasons with sunlight, CO2, nutrients, and water, making algae a remarkable area in the bioeconomy.
“Algae can be produced on a large scale in all seasons with sunlight, CO2, nutrients, and water, constituting a remarkable area in the bioeconomy (Araújo et al., 2021; Ullmann and Grimm, 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Araújo et al., 2021 source
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- cites Ullmann and Grimm, 2021
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Premisecitation
Biotechnological platforms are based on the enzymatic conversion of biomass, that is, fermentations.
“Biotechnological platforms are based on the enzymatic conversion of biomass, that is, fermentations (B et al., 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites B et al., 2016
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Thermochemical platforms are mostly focused on the production of biofuels, although there are some cases in which chemicals are also produced at high temperature in an oxygenic or anoxygenic environment.
“These platforms are mostly focused on the production of biofuels, although there are some cases in which chemicals are also produced at high temperature in an oxygenic or anoxygenic environment (International Energy Agency, 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites International Energy Agency, 2016
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone given
After countless efforts and research devoted to efficient and scaled-up lignin depolymerization processes for years, many challenges still stand ahead.
“However, after countless efforts and research devoted to efficient and scaled-up lignin depolymerization processes for years, many challenges still stand ahead.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone given
Catalyzed aqueous phase reforming (APR) of various oxygenated hydrocarbons derived from biomass is a promising process to produce hydrogen under wet conditions.
“Furthermore, catalyzed aqueous phase reforming (APR) of various oxygenated hydrocarbons derived from biomass, such as ethanol, ethylene glycol, polyols (glycerol, sorbitol, and glucose), cellulose, and woody biomass, is a promising process to produce hydrogen under wet conditions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Succinic acid is a C4 building block that can be obtained from biomass sources.
“Succinic acid is a C4 building block that can be also obtained from biomass sources (Delhomme et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Delhomme et al., 2009 source
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
γ-Valerolactone (GVL) is significantly less hazardous to humans than various organic solvents such as NMP, DMAc, or DMF, showing similar and often lower ecotoxicity, so it may be used in the food industry as a flavoring agent.
“It is significantly less hazardous to humans than various organic solvents such as NMP, DMAc, or DMF, showing similar and often lower ecotoxicity so it may be used in the food industry as a flavoring agent (Kerkel et al., 2021)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Kerkel et al., 2021 source
  Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given
The development of integrated biorefinery processes that produce both bio-based products and energy carriers is the most efficient strategy to valorize biomass in the future bio-based economy.
“The development of integrated biorefinery processes that produce both bio-based products and energy carriers is the most efficient strategy to valorize biomass in the future bio-based economy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given
Biomass is meant to be the most critical source of carbon materials as the economy gradually abandons coal and crude oil for extraction of raw materials and fuels.
“Biomass is meant to be the most critical source of carbon materials, as our economy gradually abandons coal and crude oil for the extraction of raw materials and fuels.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
HMF is a key biomass platform intermediate that is commonly obtained from glucose or fructose by dehydration reactions.
“HMF is a key biomass platform intermediate that is commonly obtained from glucose or fructose by dehydration reactions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Boisen et al., 2009 source
  Not checked in the free run.
- cites Wang et al., 2018 source
  Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Interpretationreasoning
The coexistence of several biorefinery platforms under development and competitive technologies increases the chances of having full scale-up integrated biorefineries in the future.
“Although some of these alternatives might not be successful in the long run, the fact that several options coexist only increases the chances of having full scale-up integrated biorefineries in the future.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given
The new bio-based economy grows in complexity alongside higher crude oil prices, environmental concerns, corporate commitments, policy, and legislation.
“The new bio-based economy grows in complexity, alongside higher crude oil prices, environmental concerns, corporate commitments, policy, and legislation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation
2,5-Furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) is currently recognized as one of the most important bio-based synthons due to its potential application as a monomer to synthesize green polymers, and it has become an ideal green alternative to terephthalate.
“Among them, 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) is currently recognized as one of the most important bio-based synthons due to its potential application as a monomer to synthesize green polymers. Thus, FDCA has become an ideal green alternative to terephthalate (Drault et al., 2020), which is used in the synthesis of one of the most popular thermoplastic polyesters (Intratec, 2017).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Drault et al., 2020 source
  Not checked in the free run.
- cites Intratec, 2017
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Most biopolymers are biodegradable, and in many cases biocompatible, which makes them considered green polymers.
“Most of the biopolymers are biodegradable, and in many cases biocompatible, which makes them to be considered as green polymers (Scott, 2000).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Scott, 2000 source
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation
In the last few years, the biotechnological process to produce butan-1-ol (1-butanol) has been improved and it is economically equivalent to better-established petrochemical processes.
“In the last few years, the biotechnological process to produce butan-1-ol (1-butanol) has been improved and it is economically equivalent to better-established petrochemical processes (Ndaba et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Ndaba et al., 2015 source
  Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given
Many fuels, chemical building blocks, polymers, and solvents are already being produced from biomass and biomass waste in new generations of biorefineries.
“Many fuels, chemical building blocks, polymers, and solvents are already being produced from biomass and biomass waste in the new generations of biorefineries, and this production is expected to grow as the biorefinery system reaches the industrial scale.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given
Current technological developments can perform almost anything for carbohydrate-containing biomass.
“In the case of carbohydrate-containing biomass, the current technological developments can perform almost anything, but the same does not apply to the lignin platform.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning
The growth of a bio-based economy implies an increase in feedstock demand, technology development, and business opportunities.
“Moreover, this growth of a bio-based economy also implies an increase in feedstock demand, technology development, and business opportunities.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation
Polymers synthesized from biomass are a more sustainable alternative to conventional polymers traditionally prepared from petroleum, and they constitute a permanent growing market.
“Polymers synthetized from biomass, bio-based polymers, are a more sustainable alternative to conventional polymers traditionally prepared from petroleum, and they constitute a permanent growing market (Global biopolymers market to witness a CAGR of 15.2% during 2018–2024: Energies Market Research Pvt Ltd, 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Global biopolymers market to witness a CAGR of 15.2% during 2018–2024: Energies Market Research Pvt Ltd, 2018
  Not checked in the free run.

44 of 44

The paper relies on this without support.
The list of substances, materials, and key building blocks available from biomass to produce fine and specialty chemicals is still quite limited compared to those provided by the petrochemical industry.
“Despite its abundance, applicability, and use, the list of substances, materials, and key building blocks available from biomass to produce fine and specialty chemicals is still quite limited compared to those provided by the petrochemical industry.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The lack of cost-efficient scaled-up processes and the lower performance of many biorefinery products versus petrochemical alternatives have kept our economy still largely based on fossil sources.
“Furthermore, the lack of cost-efficient scaled-up processes and the lower performance of many biorefinery products versus petrochemical alternatives have kept our economy still largely based on fossil sources.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Lignin is the second most abundant biopolymer in nature after cellulose, and the first source of aromatic chemical moieties, excluding crude oil.
“Lignin is the second most abundant biopolymer in nature after cellulose, and the first source of aromatic chemical moieties, excluding crude oil.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The cost of bio-based production still exceeds the cost of its petrochemical alternative.
“However, the cost of bio-based production still exceeds the cost of its petrochemical alternative, and bio-based products need to be proven to outperform their petrochemical counterparts.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Lignin is the most abundant source of aromatic moieties in nature.
“For lignin, neither chemically nor biotechnologically platforms provide satisfactory results, despite lignin being the most abundant source of aromatic moieties in nature.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Organic fertilizers from biorefineries are quite easy to prepare.
“Although organic fertilizers from biorefineries are quite easy to prepare, recovering inorganic nutrients with current technologies is challenging.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Recovering inorganic nutrients with current technologies is challenging.
“Although organic fertilizers from biorefineries are quite easy to prepare, recovering inorganic nutrients with current technologies is challenging.”

7 of 7

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Effective conversion often requires feedstock preprocessing steps, such as mechanical shredding or milling, to improve handling efficiency.
“Effective conversion often requires feedstock preprocessing steps, such as mechanical shredding or milling, to improve handling efficiency [129-131].”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [131]
Section 2.1 says biomass conversion often requires pretreatment and identifies milling as a physical pretreatment that helps subsequent processing. The Introduction also lists mechanical size reduction as preprocessing. Neither passage says these steps improve handling efficiency, and the cited passages do not specifically mention shredding. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

Table 8 is attributed to the wrong starting compound
Minor
The text says Table 8 summarizes compounds from succinic acid, but the table is titled as derivatives from levulinic acid.
Organosolv extraction is described as both organic-solvent and aqueous
Minor
The description identifies soda lignin as an example of lignin extracted with organic solvents, then says the extraction uses aqueous sodium hydroxide.
Lactic acid is classified as both C2 and C3
Minor
The text calls lactic acid a C2 building block, but both the section heading and Table 2 classify it as C3.
A phase III subgroup uses a single feedstock
Minor
Phase III biorefineries are defined as processing multiple feedstocks, but the whole-crop subgroup is described as using a unique feedstock.
Scheme 8 is assigned two different subjects
Minor
The text says Scheme 8 shows products obtained from HMF, whereas its caption identifies it as a reaction in 2-octanol synthesis.

5 of 5

Technology development for the production of biobased products from biorefinery carbohydrates—the US Department of Energy’s “Top 10” revisited
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Top Value Added Chemicals from Biomass: Volume I -- Results of Screening for Potential Candidates from Sugars and Synthesis Gas
Werpy, T. A., & Petersen, G. R. (2004) · doi:10.2172/15008859 · Cited by 3,219 · see citing works
Green and sustainable solvents in chemical processes
Clarke, C. J., Tu, W.-C., Levers, O., Bröhl, A., & Hallett, J. P. (2018) · Chemical Reviews · doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00571 · Cited by 2,071 · see citing works
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
Moise, E. (1988) · World Competition Law and Economics Review · doi:10.1016/0048-9697(80)90073-x · Cited by 1,564 · see citing works
Green Chemistry
Anastas, P. T., & Warner, J. C. (2000) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198506980.001.0001 · Cited by 1,356 · see citing works
Microalgae biorefinery: High value products perspectives
Chew, K. W., Yap, J. Y., Show, P. L., Suan, N. H., Juan, J. C., Ling, T. C., Lee, D.-J., & Chang, J.-S. (2017) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2017.01.006 · Cited by 1,336 · see citing works
A concise review of current lignin production, applications, products and their environmental impact
Bajwa, D. S., Pourhashem, G., Ullah, A. H., & Bajwa, S. G. (2019) · Industrial Crops and Products · doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.111526 · Cited by 1,286 · see citing works
Lignin as Renewable Raw Material
Calvo‐Flores, F. G., & Dobado, J. A. (2010) · ChemSusChem · doi:10.1002/cssc.201000157 · Cited by 980 · see citing works
Self-citation
Principles of biorefineries
Kamm, B., & Kamm, M. A. (2004) · Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology · doi:10.1007/s00253-003-1537-7 · Cited by 979 · see citing works
Lactic acid: recent advances in products, processes and technologies — a review
Datta, R., & Henry, M. P. (2006) · Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology · doi:10.1002/jctb.1486 · Cited by 973 · see citing works
Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass: Developments from batch to continuous process
Elliott, D. C., Biller, P., Ross, A. B., Schmidt, A. J., & Jones, S. B. (2014) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2014.09.132 · Cited by 970 · see citing works
Top Value-Added Chemicals from Biomass - Volume II—Results of Screening for Potential Candidates from Biorefinery Lignin
Holladay, J. E., White, J. F., Bozell, J. J., & Johnson, D. (2007) · doi:10.2172/921839 · Cited by 905 · cited 2× · see citing works
“The report started to be implemented a few years later, including lignin as an option for the obtention of new compounds of interest (Holladay et al., 2007).”
Background
Lactic acid as a platform chemical in the biobased economy: the role of chemocatalysis
Dusselier, M., Wouwe, P. V., Dewaele, A., Makshina, E. V., & Sels, B. F. (2013) · Energy & Environmental Science · doi:10.1039/c3ee00069a · Cited by 827 · see citing works
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
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Biorefineries: Current status, challenges, and future direction
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Current Status of the Algae Production Industry in Europe: An Emerging Sector of the Blue Bioeconomy
Araújo, R., Vázquez Calderón, F., Sánchez López, J., Azevedo, I. C., Bruhn, A., Fluch, S., Garcia Tasende, M., Ghaderiardakani, F., Ilmjärv, T., Laurans, M., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Marine Science · doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.626389 · Cited by 653 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Algae can be produced on a large scale in all seasons with sunlight, CO2, nutrients, and water, constituting a remarkable area in the bioeconomy (Araújo et al., 2021; Ullmann and Grimm, 2021).”
Background
Glycerol as a sustainable solvent for green chemistry
Gu, Y., & Jérôme, F. (2010) · Green Chemistry · doi:10.1039/c001628d · Cited by 605 · see citing works
A Review of Recent Advances in Biomass Pyrolysis
Wang, G., Dai, Y., Yang, H., Xiong, Q., Wang, K., Zhou, J., Li, Y., & Wang, S. (2020) · Energy & Fuels · doi:10.1021/acs.energyfuels.0c03107 · Cited by 597 · see citing works
Biomass-to-hydrogen: A review of main routes production, processes evaluation and techno-economical assessment
Lepage, T., Kammoun, M., Schmetz, Q., & Richel, A. (2020) · Biomass and Bioenergy · doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2020.105920 · Cited by 573 · see citing works
Current progress in production of biopolymeric materials based on cellulose, cellulose nanofibers, and cellulose derivatives
Shaghaleh, H., Xu, X., & Wang, S. (2018) · RSC Advances · doi:10.1039/c7ra11157f · Cited by 564 · see citing works
Bio-based fertilizers: A practical approach towards circular economy
Chojnacka, K., Moustakas, K., & Witek-Krowiak, A. (2020) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122223 · Cited by 545 · see citing works
Ethyl lactate as a solvent: Properties, applications and production processes – a review
Pereira, C. S. M., Silva, V. M. T. M., & Rodrigues, A. E. (2011) · Green Chemistry · doi:10.1039/c1gc15523g · Cited by 544 · see citing works
Starch-based biodegradable materials: Challenges and opportunities
Jiang, T., Duan, Q., Zhu, J., Liu, H., & Yu, L. F. (2019) · Advanced Industrial and Engineering Polymer Research · doi:10.1016/j.aiepr.2019.11.003 · Cited by 539 · see citing works
An overview of biorefinery derived platform chemicals from a cellulose and hemicellulose biorefinery
Takkellapati, S., Li, T., & Gonzalez, M. A. (2018) · Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy · doi:10.1007/s10098-018-1568-5 · Cited by 526 · see citing works
New concepts in nutraceuticals as alternative for pharmaceuticals.
Nasri, H., Baradaran, A., Shirzad, H., & Rafieian‐Kopaei, M. (2014) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 525 · see citing works
Biorefineries for the production of top building block chemicals and their derivatives
Choi, S., Song, C. W., Shin, J. H., & Lee, S. Y. (2015) · Metabolic Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.ymben.2014.12.007 · Cited by 516 · see citing works
Lactic acid production – producing microorganisms and substrates sources-state of art
Abedi, E., & Hashemi, S. M. B. (2020) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04974 · Cited by 507 · see citing works
Limonene: a versatile chemical of the bioeconomy
Ciriminna, R., Lomelí‐Rodríguez, M., Carà, P. D., López-Sánchez, J. A., & Pagliaro, M. (2014) · Chemical Communications · doi:10.1039/c4cc06147k · Cited by 493 · see citing works
Chemical Composition and Structure of Natural Lignocellulose
Chen, H. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6898-7_2 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
Lignocellulosic biorefinery as a model for sustainable development of biofuels and value added products
Bhowmick, G. D., Sarmah, A. K., & Sen, R. (2017) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2017.09.163 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
Reductive catalytic fractionation: state of the art of the lignin-first biorefinery
Renders, T., den Bossche, G. V., Vangeel, T., Aelst, K. V., & Sels, B. F. (2019) · Current Opinion in Biotechnology · doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2018.12.005 · Cited by 437 · see citing works
Toward a common classification approach for biorefinery systems
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Succinic acid from renewable resources as a C <sub>4</sub> building-block chemical—a review of the catalytic possibilities in aqueous media
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Green polymers
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n-Butanol derived from biochemical and chemical routes: A review
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Fatty Acids and their Derivatives as Renewable Platform Molecules for the Chemical Industry
Biermann, U., Bornscheuer, U. T., Feußner, I., Meier, M. A. R., & Metzger, J. O. (2021) · Angewandte Chemie International Edition · doi:10.1002/anie.202100778 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Design strategies for sustainable biorefineries
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Styrene biosynthesis from glucose by engineered E. coli
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Lignin-based polymers and nanomaterials
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The green platform molecule gamma-valerolactone – ecotoxicity, biodegradability, solvent properties, and potential applications
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Lignin and Lignans as Renewable Raw Materials
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Self-citation
Recent Developments and Applications of Hemicellulose From Wheat Straw: A Review
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Vegetable Oil: Nutritional and Industrial Perspective
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Biofuel production from biomass
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Lactic acid as an invaluable bio-based solvent for organic reactions
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Production and Applications of Succinic Acid
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Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions
Yılbaşı, Z. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17136145 · Cited by 41 · see citing works

Authors: Calvo-Flores, F. G., & Martin-Martinez, F. J.
Venue: Frontiers in Chemistry
Publisher: Frontiers Media SA
Published: 2022-11-10
Volume: 10
Pages: 973417-973417
ISSN: 2296-2646 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.973417
PMC: PMC9686847
OpenAlex: W4308872131
Semantic Scholar: de1473561a24f7f462559d20b315a1335d9aa7d2
Cited by: 176
References: 153
Citations by year: 2026: 46 · 2025: 74 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 16
FWCI: 2.90
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Frontiers in Chemistry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Institutional Repository of the University of Granada (University of Granada) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders: Royal Society
Royal Society of Chemistry (E21-7051491439)
Swansea University
Junta de Andalucía
Global Challenges Research Fund
Topics: Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Catalysis for Biomass Conversion
Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Biofuel production and bioconversion
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › General Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Bioeconomy and Sustainability Development
Keywords: biorefinery, bioeconomy, lignin depolymerization, biomass valorization, non-edible biomass, biomass waste, decarbonization, platform chemicals, Sustainable Development Goals, catalysts

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Biorefineries: Achievements and challenges for a bio-based economy

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