Innate Immunity of Neonates and Infants
Open accessAbstract
Many important events occur at birth. The fetus is suddenly removed from a protected intra-uterine environment that is aquatic, warm, and nearly sterile, to the dry, cold external world laden with microbes. To survive, the neonate must interact with many organisms, making use of some, while vigorously defending against the others like a nation conducting trade with friendly countries and guarding against hostile ones from invading it, waging wars if necessary. Although, the neonatal immune system is plastic, however, it is highly tolerant which is due to both the fetal development during gestation as well as significant sudden changes in fetal environment and enormous exposure to the new antigens and intestinal bacteria and their products. This "quiescent mode" of innate immune system is part of a highly regulated process to fulfill all requirements of multi-layered process of early life, implemented effectively through the cells of innate immune system. While, most of the neonatal innate immune cells (e.g., neutrophils and monocytes) present contained activity and lower frequencies compared to their adult counterparts, innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), a distinct cellular component of innate immunity, show higher level of activity and presence during period of infancy compared to later stages of life and adulthood, which may suggest a role for ILCs in variable susceptibility to certain conditions during life time. In this review, while we focus on the characteristics and status of ILCs in neonatal immune system, we also draw an analogy from a national defense perspective because of the great similarities between that and the immune system by providing the known biological counterparts of all five core operational elements, the five Ds of defense, detection, discrimination, deployment, destruction, and de-escalation, with special focus on innate immunity, maternal support, and influence during the neonatal and infancy periods.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
While the inflammation characteristics of gingivitis are mostly reversible, periodontitis results in long-term, irreversible damage to the periodontal tissues and alveolar bone that manifests as tissue detachment from the tooth, formation of a pocket wherein pathogenic bacteria can proliferate further, and eventual tooth loss in advanced stages of the disease.
“While the inflammation characteristics of gingivitis are mostly reversible, periodontitis results in long‐term, irreversible damage to the periodontal tissues and alveolar bone that manifests as tissue detachment from the tooth, formation of a pocket wherein pathogenic bacteria can proliferate further, and eventual tooth loss in advanced stages of the disease.192, 193, 194, 195”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [195]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
The gut microbiota shapes intestinal immune responses during health and disease
Round, J. L., & Mazmanian, S. K. (2009) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri2515 · Cited by 5,029 · see citing works
Dominguez-Bello, M. G., Costello, E. K., Contreras, M., Magris, M., Hidalgo, G., Fierer, N., & Knight, R. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1002601107 · Cited by 4,774 · see citing works
Interferon-γ: an overview of signals, mechanisms and functions
Schroder, K., Hertzog, P. J., Ravasi, T., & Hume, D. A. (2004) · Journal of Leukocyte Biology · doi:10.1189/jlb.0603252 · Cited by 4,120 · see citing works
Approaching the asymptote? Evolution and revolution in immunology.Preprint
Janeway, C. (1989) · Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology · doi:10.1101/sqb.1989.054.01.003 · Cited by 3,396 · see citing works
Human Genetics Shape the Gut Microbiome
Goodrich, J. K., Waters, J. L., Poole, A. C., Sutter, J. L., Koren, O., Blekhman, R., Beaumont, M., Van Treuren, W., Knight, R., Bell, J. T., et al. (2014) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.09.053 · Cited by 3,164 · see citing works
Ballard, O., & Morrow, A. L. (2012) · Pediatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2012.10.002 · Cited by 2,598 · see citing works
Succession of microbial consortia in the developing infant gut microbiome
Koenig, J. E., Spor, A., Scalfone, N., Fricker, A. D., Stombaugh, J., Knight, R., Angenent, L. T., & Ley, R. E. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1000081107 · Cited by 2,540 · see citing works
The Placenta Harbors a Unique Microbiome
Aagaard, K., Ma, J., Antony, K. M., Ganu, R., Petrosino, J., & Versalovic, J. (2014) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3008599 · Cited by 2,494 · see citing works
Nuocytes represent a new innate effector leukocyte that mediates type-2 immunity
Neill, D. R., Wong, S. H., Bellosi, A., Flynn, R. J., Daly, M. G., Langford, T. K. A., Bucks, C. M., Kane, C. M., Fallon, P. G., Pannell, R., et al. (2010) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature08900 · Cited by 2,079 · see citing works
Innate production of TH2 cytokines by adipose tissue-associated c-Kit+Sca-1+ lymphoid cells
Moro, K., Yamada, T., Tanabe, M., Takeuchi, T., Ikawa, T., Kawamoto, H., Furusawa, J.-I., Ohtani, M., Fujii, H., & Koyasu, S. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature08636 · Cited by 1,994 · see citing works
Dietary-fat-induced taurocholic acid promotes pathobiont expansion and colitis in Il10-/- mice
Devkota, S., Wang, Y., Musch, M. W., Leone, V., Fehlner-Peach, H., Nadimpalli, A., Antonopoulos, D. A., Jabri, B., & Chang, E. B. (2012) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature11225 · Cited by 1,904 · see citing works
Evolution of the immune system in humans from infancy to old age
Simon, A. K., Hollander, G. A., & McMichael, A. (2015) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.3085 · Cited by 1,796 · see citing works
The Fourth Dimension of Life: Fractal Geometry and Allometric Scaling of Organisms
West, G. B., Brown, J. H., & Enquist, B. J. (1999) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.284.5420.1677 · Cited by 1,718 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Every CAS has many loosely connected interacting parts, forming self-organized hierarchical systems (67).”
BackgroundThe biology of innate lymphoid cells
Artis, D., & Spits, H. (2015) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature14189 · Cited by 1,624 · see citing works
Quorum-sensing in Gram-negative bacteria
Whitehead, N. A., Barnard, A. M. L., Slater, H., Simpson, N. J. L., & Salmond, G. P. C. (2001) · FEMS Microbiology Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00583.x · Cited by 1,611 · see citing works
Heinlaan, M., Ivask, A., Blinova, I., Dubourguier, H., & Kahru, A. (2008) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.11.047 · Cited by 1,525 · see citing works
Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology.
Berg, H. (1989) · Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry · doi:10.1016/0022-0728(89)87283-3 · Cited by 1,152 · see citing works
Collado, M. C., Rautava, S., Aakko, J., Isolauri, E., & Salminen, S. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep23129 · Cited by 1,098 · see citing works
Pannaraj, P. S., Li, F., Cerini, C., Bender, J. M., Yang, S., Rollie, A., Adisetiyo, H., Zabih, S., Lincez, P. J., Bittinger, K. L., et al. (2017) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.0378 · Cited by 1,067 · see citing works
Neonatal adaptive immunity comes of age
Adkins, B., Leclerc, C., & Marshall-Clarke, S. (2004) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri1394 · Cited by 1,005 · see citing works
Is meconium from healthy newborns actually sterile?
Jiménez, E., Marín, M. L., Martı́n, R., Odriozola, J. M., Olivares, M. M., Xaus, J., Fernández, L., & Rodríguez, J. M. (2008) · Research in Microbiology · doi:10.1016/j.resmic.2007.12.007 · Cited by 944 · see citing works
The infant microbiome development: Mom matters
Mueller, N. T., Bakacs, E., Combellick, J., Grigoryan, Z., & Dominguez-Bello, M. G. (2015) · Trends in Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2014.12.002 · Cited by 943 · see citing works
Maternal Infection Requiring Hospitalization During Pregnancy and Autism Spectrum Disorders
Atladóttir, H. Ó., Thorsen, P., Østergaard, L., Schendel, D. E., Lemcke, S., Abdallah, M., & Parner, E. T. (2010) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1006-y · Cited by 916 · see citing works
Innate lymphoid cells: A new paradigm in immunology
Eberl, G., Colonna, M., Di Santo, J. P., & McKenzie, A. N. J. (2015) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aaa6566 · Cited by 878 · see citing works
Gut microbiome, obesity, and metabolic dysfunction
Tilg, H., & Kaser, A. (2011) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci58109 · Cited by 860 · see citing works
Human milk is a source of lactic acid bacteria for the infant gut
Martín, R., Langa, S., Reviriego, C., Jimínez, E., Marín, M. L., Xaus, J., Fernández, L., & Rodríguez, J. M. (2003) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2003.09.028 · Cited by 792 · see citing works
Jiménez, E., Fernández, L., Marín, M. L., Martı́n, R., Odriozola, J. M., Nueno‐Palop, C., Narbad, A., Olivares, M. M., Xaus, J., & Rodríguez, J. M. (2005) · Current Microbiology · doi:10.1007/s00284-005-0020-3 · Cited by 681 · see citing works
Development, Differentiation, and Diversity of Innate Lymphoid Cells
Diefenbach, A., Colonna, M., & Koyasu, S. (2014) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2014.09.005 · Cited by 560 · see citing works
Role of human milk in extremely low birth weight infants’ risk of necrotizing enterocolitis or death
Meinzen‐Derr, J. K., Poindexter, B. B., Wrage, L. A., et al. (2008) · Journal of Perinatology · doi:10.1038/jp.2008.117 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
Cesarean Versus Vaginal Delivery: Long-term Infant Outcomes and the Hygiene Hypothesis
Neu, J., & Rushing, J. (2011) · Clinics in Perinatology · doi:10.1016/j.clp.2011.03.008 · Cited by 528 · see citing works
Protection of the Neonate by the Innate Immune System of Developing Gut and of Human Milk
Newburg, D. S., & Walker, W. A. (2007) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1203/01.pdr.0000250274.68571.18 · Cited by 524 · see citing works
Giacinto, C. D., Marinaro, M., Sanchez, M., Strober, W., & Boirivant, M. (2005) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.174.6.3237 · Cited by 522 · see citing works
Systemic Human ILC Precursors Provide a Substrate for Tissue ILC Differentiation
Lim, A. I., Li, Y., Lopez‐Lastra, S., Stadhouders, R., Paul, F., Casrouge, A., Serafini, N., Puel, A., Bustamante, J. C., Surace, L., et al. (2017) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2017.02.021 · Cited by 515 · see citing works
Basha, S., Surendran, N., & Pichichero, M. (2014) · Expert Review of Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1586/1744666x.2014.942288 · Cited by 513 · see citing works
Protecting the Newborn and Young Infant from Infectious Diseases: Lessons from Immune Ontogeny
Kollmann, T. R., Kampmann, B., Mazmanian, S. K., Marchant, A., & Levy, O. (2017) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2017.03.009 · Cited by 478 · see citing works
Type 2 immunity and wound healing: evolutionary refinement of adaptive immunity by helminths
Gause, W. C., Wynn, T. A., & Allen, J. E. (2013) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri3476 · Cited by 467 · see citing works
Incidence and Timing of Presentation of Necrotizing Enterocolitis in Preterm Infants
Yee, W. H., Soraisham, A. S., Shah, V. S., Aziz, K., Yoon, W., Lee, S. K., & the Canadian Neonatal Network (2012) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2022 · Cited by 467 · see citing works
Location and cellular stages of natural killer cell development
Yu, J., Freud, A. G., & Caligiuri, M. A. (2013) · Trends in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.it.2013.07.005 · Cited by 388 · see citing works
Self-citationGosalbes, M. J., Llop, S., Vallès, Y., Moyá, A., Ballester, F., & Francino, M. P. (2012) · Clinical & Experimental Allergy · doi:10.1111/cea.12063 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
Perinatal Activation of the Interleukin-33 Pathway Promotes Type 2 Immunity in the Developing Lung
de Kleer, I. M., Kool, M., de Bruijn, M. J. W., Willart, M. A. M., Moorleghem, J. V., Schuijs, M. J., Plantinga, M., Beyaert, R., Hams, E., Fallon, P. G., et al. (2016) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2016.10.031 · Cited by 342 · see citing works
Wilson, C. B., Westall, J., Johnston, L. A., et al. (1986) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci112383 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
Bergen, S. E., O'Dushlaine, C. T., Ripke, S., Lee, P. H., Ruderfer, D. M., Akterin, S., Moran, J. L., Chambert, K. D., Handsaker, R. E., Backlund, L., et al. (2012) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2012.73 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Hong, J. Y., Bentley, J. K., Chung, Y., et al. (2014) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2014.04.020 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Cabinian, A., Sinsimer, D., Tang, M., Zumba, O., Mehta, H., Toma, A., Sant’Angelo, D. B., Laouar, Y., & Laouar, A. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0156762 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
A critical review of the roles of host lactoferrin in immunity
Legrand, D., & Mazurier, J. (2010) · BioMetals · doi:10.1007/s10534-010-9297-1 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Immune Cell–Mediated Protection of the Mammary Gland and the Infant during Breastfeeding
Hassiotou, F., & Geddes, D. T. (2015) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.3945/an.114.007377 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Diversity of NK Cell Receptor Repertoire in Adult and Neonatal Mice
Kubota, A., Kubota, S., Lohwasser, S., Mager, D. L., & Takei, F. (1999) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.163.1.212 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
The evolution of lysozyme and α‐lactalbumin
Nitta, K., & Sugai, S. (1989) · European Journal of Biochemistry · doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb14806.x · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Human milk oligosaccharide categories define the microbiota composition in human colostrum
Aakko, J., Kumar, H., Rautava, S., Wise, A., Autran, C. A., Bode, L., Isolauri, E., & Salminen, S. (2017) · Beneficial Microbes · doi:10.3920/bm2016.0185 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
PLZF is a regulator of homeostatic and cytokine-induced myeloid developmentPreprint
Doulatov, S. R., Notta, F., Rice, K. L., Howell, L., Zelent, A., Licht, J. D., & Dick, J. E. (2009) · Genes & Development · doi:10.1101/gad.1788109 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Representation of Dormant and Active Microbial Dynamics for Ecosystem Modeling
Wang, G., Mayes, M. A., Gu, L., et al. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089252 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Distinct mechanisms of the newborn innate immunity
Kumar, S. K. M., & Bhat, B. V. (2016) · Immunology Letters · doi:10.1016/j.imlet.2016.03.009 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: The Science of Logic
Hegel, G. W. F. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9780511780240 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
IL-23 activates innate lymphoid cells to promote neonatal intestinal pathology
Chen, L., He, Z., Slinger, E., Bongers, G., Lapenda, T. L. S., Pacer, M. E., Jiao, J., Beltrão, M., Soto, A. J., Harpaz, N., et al. (2014) · Mucosal Immunology · doi:10.1038/mi.2014.77 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Leucocytes in human milk and lymphocyte subsets in cow's milk-allergic infants
Järvinen, K. M., & Suomalainen, H. (2002) · Pediatric Allergy and Immunology · doi:10.1034/j.1399-3038.2002.00087.x · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Dynamic changes in intrathymic ILC populations during murine neonatal development
Jones, R., Cosway, E. J., Willis, C., White, A. J., Jenkinson, W. E., Fehling, H. J., Anderson, G., & Withers, D. R. (2018) · European Journal of Immunology · doi:10.1002/eji.201847511 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Neonatal hyperoxia promotes asthma-like features through IL-33–dependent ILC2 responses
Cheon, I. S., Son, Y. M., Jiang, L., Goplen, N., Kaplan, M. H., LIMPER, A. H., Kita, H., Paczesny, S., Prakash, Y. S., Tepper, R. S., et al. (2017) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2017.11.025 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Neonatal Natural Killer Cell Function: Relevance to Antiviral Immune Defense
Lee, Y.-C., & Lin, S. (2013) · Clinical and Developmental Immunology · doi:10.1155/2013/427696 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Tregoning, J. S., Wang, B. L., McDonald, J. U., Yamaguchi, Y., Harker, J. A., Goritzka, M., Johansson, C., Bukreyev, A. A., Collins, P. L., & Openshaw, P. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1214247110 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Price, S. J., Davies, M. W., Villarreal‐Ramos, B., et al. (2010) · Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology · doi:10.1016/j.vetimm.2010.02.010 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
ILC 2 memory: Recollection of previous activation
Martínez-González, I., Ghaedi, M., Steer, C. A., Mathä, L., Vivier, É., & Takei, F. (2018) · Immunological Reviews · doi:10.1111/imr.12643 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Group 2 innate lymphocytes at the interface between innate and adaptive immunity
Schuijs, M. J., & Halim, T. Y. F. (2018) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13604 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Diefenbach, A., Colonna, M., & Romagnani, C. (2017) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2017.03.008 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Presence and Profile of Innate Lymphoid Cells in Human Breast Milk
Baban, B., Malik, A., Bhatia, J. J. S., et al. (2018) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.0148 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationFactors influencing innate immunity and vaccine responses in infancy
Kampmann, B., & Jones, C. E. (2015) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2014.0148 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Cutting Edge: Innate Lymphoid Cells Suppress Homeostatic T Cell Expansion in Neonatal Mice
Bank, U., Deiser, K., Finke, D., et al. (2016) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1501643 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Innate lymphoid cells: a paradigm for low SSI in cleft lip repair
Simmerman, E. L., Qin, X., Marshall, B., et al. (2016) · Journal of Surgical Research · doi:10.1016/j.jss.2016.06.081 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Complex dynamics of life at different scales: from genomic to global environmental issues
Anteneodo, C., & da Luz, M. G. E. (2010) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rsta.2010.0286 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Back to the drawing board: Understanding the complexity of hepatic innate lymphoid cells
Marotel, M., Hasan, U. A., Viel, S., Marçais, A., & Walzer, T. (2016) · European Journal of Immunology · doi:10.1002/eji.201646584 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Rival, C. M., Setiady, Y. Y., Samy, E. T., et al. (2014) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2014.00242 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Evolution of the innate immune system
Janeway, C. A., Travers, P. J., Walport, M. J., et al. (2001) · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease
Sedghi, L., DiMassa, V., Harrington, A., Lynch, S. V., & Kapila, Y. L. (2021) · Periodontology 2000 · doi:10.1111/prd.12393 · Cited by 755 · see citing works
Oral microbiome: possible harbinger for children’s health
Xiao, J., Fiscella, K. A., & Gill, S. R. (2020) · International Journal of Oral Science · doi:10.1038/s41368-020-0082-x · Cited by 223 · see citing works
- Authors
- Yu, J. C., Khodadadi, H., Malik, A., Davidson, B., Salles, É. D. S. L., Bhatia, J., Hale, V. L., & Baban, B.
- Affiliations
- Augusta University (US)
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Yu, Jack C.
- Baban, Babak
- Venue
- Frontiers in Immunology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2018-07-30
- Volume
- 9
- Pages
- 1759-1759
- ISSN
- 1664-3224 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6077196
- OpenAlex
- W2887584724
- Cited by
- 292
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 63 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 48 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 3
- FWCI
- 2.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Frontiers in Immunology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › IL-33, ST2, and ILC Pathways
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune responses and vaccinations
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Neonatal and Maternal Infections
- Keywords
- neonatal innate immunity, innate lymphoid cells, neonates, infants, neonatal immune tolerance, neutrophils, monocytes, fetal development, intestinal bacteria, immune plasticity
- MeSH terms
- Gastrointestinal Microbiome, Animals, Disease Susceptibility, Humans, Immune System, Immunity, Innate, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Lymphocytes, Milk, Human, Cytokines, Host-Pathogen Interactions, Immune System Phenomena, Adaptive Immunity
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
