Cognitive, behavioral, and autonomic correlates of mind wandering and perseverative cognition in major depression
Open accessAbstract
Autonomic dysregulation has been hypothesized to play a role in the relationships between psychopathology and cardiovascular risk. An important transdiagnostic factor that has been associated with autonomic dysfunction is perseverative cognition (PC), mainly present in Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) in the form of rumination. As the ability to adaptively let our mind wander without ruminating is critical to mental health, this study aimed to examine the autonomic concomitants of functional vs. dysfunctional intrusive thoughts in MDD. Ambulatory heart rate (HR) and variability (HRV) of 18 MDD subjects and 18 healthy controls were recorded for 24 h. Approximately every 30 min during waking hours subjects reported their ongoing thoughts and moods using electronic diaries. Random regression models were performed. Compared to controls, MDD subjects were more often caught during episodes of PC. In both groups, PC required more effort to be inhibited and interfered more with ongoing activities compared to mind wandering (MW) (ps < 0.0001). This cognitive rigidity was mirrored by autonomic inflexibility, as PC was characterized by lower HRV (p < 0.0001) compared to MW. A worse mood was reported by MDD patients compared to controls, independently of their ongoing cognitive process. Controls, however, showed the highest mood worsening during PC compared to being on task and MW. HRV during rumination correlated with self-reported somatic symptoms on the same day and several dispositional traits. MDD subjects showed lower HRV during sleep, which correlated with hopelessness rumination. Results show that PC is associated with autonomic dysfunctions in both healthy and MDD subjects. Understanding when spontaneous thought is adaptive and when it is not may clarify its role in the etiology of mood disorders, shedding light on the still unexplained association between psychopathology, chronic stress, and risk for health.
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A few selected EMA studies did not report compliance information.
“A few studies did not report this information [35,40,41,42,51,57,60].”
From Current state and future directions of technology-based ecological momentary assessment and intervention for major depressive disorder: a systematic review (2019) · cites this paper as [35]
The hypothesis that mind wandering is not a maladaptive behaviour per se was confirmed.
“Confirming the hypothesis that mind wandering is not a maladaptive behaviour per se”
From Current state and future directions of technology-based ecological momentary assessment and intervention for major depressive disorder: a systematic review (2019) · cites this paper as [35]
In a smartphone diary study, only perseverative cognition was associated with health risk factors such as lower HRV, worse mood, and higher interference in daily functioning.
“only perseverative cognition was associated with health risk factors, such as lower HRV, worse mood, and higher”
From Current state and future directions of technology-based ecological momentary assessment and intervention for major depressive disorder: a systematic review (2019) · cites this paper as [35]
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Reflecting on rumination: Consequences, causes, mechanisms and treatment of rumination
Watkins, E. R., & Roberts, H. (2020) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2020.103573 · Cited by 862 · see citing works
Mind-wandering, how do I measure thee with probes? Let me count the ways
Weinstein, Y. (2018) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-017-0891-9 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Brosschot, J., Verkuil, B., & Thayer, J. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15030464 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Colombo, D., Fernández-Álvarez, J., Patané, A., Semonella, M., Kwiatkowska, M., García-Palacios, A., Cipresso, P., Riva, G., & Botella, C. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm8040465 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Frontal EEG theta/beta ratio during mind wandering episodes
Son, D. V., Blasio, F. M. D., Fogarty, J. S., Angelidis, A., Barry, R. J., & Putman, P. (2018) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.11.003 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Colombo, D., Fernández‐Álvarez, J., Suso‐Ribera, C., Cipresso, P., Valev, H., Leufkens, T., Sas, C., García‐Palacios, A., Riva, G., & Botella, C. (2020) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000671 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Brain-heart interaction in perseverative cognition
Ottaviani, C. (2018) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13082 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Self-citationHoffmann, F., Banzhaf, C., Kanske, P., Bermpohl, F., & Singer, T. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.03.005 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Carnevali, L., Thayer, J. F., BROSSCHOT, J. F., & Ottaviani, C. (2017) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2017.11.002 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Self-citationUmair, M., Chalabianloo, N., Sas, C., & Ersoy, C. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3052131 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Kirk, U., & Axelsen, J. L. (2020) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0243488 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Son, D. V., de Rover, M., Blasio, F. M. D., van der Does, W. A. J., Barry, R. J., & Putman, P. (2019) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.14180 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Mind-wandering while driving: The impact of fatigue, task length, and sustained attention abilities
Walker, H. E. K., & Trick, L. M. (2018) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2018.08.009 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Ottaviani, C., Watson, D. R., Meeten, F., Makovac, E., Garfinkel, S. N., & Critchley, H. (2016) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.06.009 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Self-citationParola, N., Zendjidjian, X., Alessandrini, M., Baumstarck, K., Loundou, A., Fond, G., Berna, F., Lançon, C., Auquier, P., & Boyer, L. (2017) · Patient Preference and Adherence · doi:10.2147/ppa.s125730 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Weinstein, Y., Lima, H. J. D., & van der Zee, T. (2017) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-017-1322-8 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Yang, J., Thapa, N., Park, H.-J., Bae, S., Park, K. W., Park, K. W., & Park, J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192013300 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Bertz, J. W., Epstein, D. H., & Preston, K. L. (2017) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.11.027 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Neurostructural abnormalities associated with axes of emotion dysregulation in generalized anxiety
Makovac, E., Meeten, F., Watson, D. R., Garfinkel, S. N., Critchley, H., & Ottaviani, C. (2015) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2015.11.022 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Self-citationExploring patterns of ongoing thought under naturalistic and conventional task-based conditions
Konu, D., Mckeown, B., Turnbull, A. G., Ho, N. S. P., Karapanagiotidis, T., Vanderwal, T., McCall, C., Tipper, S. P., Jefferies, E., & Smallwood, J. (2021) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2021.103139 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Makovac, E., Watson, D. R., Meeten, F., Garfinkel, S. N., Cercignani, M., Critchley, H., & Ottaviani, C. (2016) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsw091 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationOken, B., Wahbeh, H., Goodrich, E., Klee, D., Memmott, T., Miller, M., & Fu, R. (2016) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0640-7 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Happy Thoughts: Mind Wandering Affects Mood in Daily Life
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Mind wandering in creative problem-solving: Relationships with divergent thinking and mental health
Yamaoka, A., & Yukawa, S. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0231946 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Mind wandering and depression: A status report
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Raugh, I. M., Chapman, H. C., Bartolomeo, L. A., Gonzalez, C., & Strauss, G. P. (2019) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000651 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Correia, A. T. L., Lipinska, G., Rauch, L., Forshaw, P. E., Roden, L. C., & Rae, D. E. (2022) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2022.10.018 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Berntson, J., Patel, J. S., & Stewart, J. C. (2017) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2017.06.008 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Hoffmann, F., Viding, E. M., Puetz, V. B., Gerin, M. I., Sethi, A., Rankin, G., & McCrory, E. J. P. (2018) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2018.05.020 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Bored, distracted, and forgetful: The impact of mind wandering and boredom on memory encoding
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Slow and Powerless Thought Dynamic Relates to Brooding in Unipolar and Bipolar Depression
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A Review of Methods and Applications for a Heart Rate Variability Analysis
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Mind‐wandering: A philosophical guide
Irving, Z. C., & Glasser, A. (2019) · Philosophy Compass · doi:10.1111/phc3.12644 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Text‐to‐speech applications to reduce mind wandering in students with dyslexia
Bonifacci, P., Colombini, E., Marzocchi, M., Tobia, V., & Desideri, L. (2022) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12624 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Gil‐Jardine, C., Née, M., Lagarde, E., Schooler, J. W., Contrand, B., Orriols, L., & Galéra, C. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0181327 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Kaushik, P., Yang, H., Roy, P. P., & van Vugt, M. K. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-34298-2 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
EEG Frequency Changes Prior to Making Errors in an Easy Stroop Task
Atchley, R., Klee, D., & Oken, B. (2017) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00521 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Greenberg, J., Datta, T., Shapero, B. G., Sevinc, G., Mischoulon, D., & Lazar, S. W. (2018) · Spirituality in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1037/scp0000168 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Nagai, Y., Aram, J. A., Koepp, M. J., Lemieux, L., Mula, M., Critchley, H., Sisodiya, S. M., & Cercignani, M. (2017) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2017.12.012 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Does Mind Wandering During the Thought Incubation Period Improve Creativity and Worsen Mood?
Yamaoka, A., & Yukawa, S. (2019) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/0033294119896039 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Boayue, N. M., Csifcsák, G., Kreis, I. V., Schmidt, C., Finn, I. C., Vollsund, A. E., & Mittner, M. (2020) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15049 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Early indicators of vulnerability to depression: The role of rumination and heart rate variability
Moretta, T., & Benvenuti, S. M. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.06.049 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Longis, E. D., Alessandri, G., & Ottaviani, C. (2020) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.06.007 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationChalabianloo, N., Can, Y. S., Umair, M., Sas, C., & Ersoy, C. (2022) · Pervasive and Mobile Computing · doi:10.1016/j.pmcj.2022.101703 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Ever at the ready for events that never happen
BROSSCHOT, J. F. (2017) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1309934 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Mindfulness Effects on Mind Wandering and Autonomic Balance
Bortolla, R., Galli, M., Spada, G. E., & Maffei, C. (2022) · Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback · doi:10.1007/s10484-021-09527-x · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Hemodynamic profiles of functional and dysfunctional forms of repetitive thinking
Ottaviani, C., Brosschot, J. F., Lonigro, A., Medea, B., Van Diest, I., & Thayer, J. F. (2017) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-016-9851-3 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationBailey, T., Shahabi, L., Tarvainen, M., Shapiro, D., & Ottaviani, C. (2019) · Anxiety, Stress, & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2019.1570821 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationA Computational Model of Focused Attention Meditation and Its Transfer to a Sustained Attention Task
Moye, A., & van Vugt, M. K. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/taffc.2019.2908172 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Song, S., Seo, Y., Hwang, S., Kim, H., & Kim, J. (2024) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/55842 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Effects of Three Genres of Focus Music on Heart Rate Variability and Sustained Attention
Kirk, U., Ngnoumen, C. T., Clausel, A., & Purvis, C. K. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-021-00226-3 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Cárdenas-Egúsquiza, A. L., & Berntsen, D. (2022) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2022.103333 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Kanske, P., Schulze, L., Dziobek, I., Scheibner, H. J., Roepke, S., & Singer, T. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.05.060 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Perseverative cognition, distracted communication, and well‐being in everyday social interaction
Merolla, A. J., Hall, J. A., & Bernhold, Q. S. (2019) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12286 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Niedźwieńska, A., & Kvavilashvili, L. (2018) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000457 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Negative mood mind wandering and unsafe driving in young male drivers
Albert, D. A., Ouimet, M. C., & Brown, T. G. (2022) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2022.106867 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Girolamo, G., Barattieri di San Pietro, C., Bulgari, V., Dagani, J., Ferrari, C., Hotopf, M., Iannone, G., Macis, A., Matcham, F., Myin‐Germeys, I., et al. (2020) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.23023 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Zhou, H., Dai, Z., Hua, L., Jiang, H., Tian, S., Han, Y., Lin, P., Wang, H., Lü, Q., & Yao, Z. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00989 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Wießner, I., Falchi-Carvalho, M., Palhano-Fontes, F., Maia, L. O., Feilding, A., Ribeiro, S. T. G., Mota, N. B., de Araújo, D. B., & Tófoli, L. F. (2021) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-021-06006-3 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Kocsel, N., Köteles, F. G., Galambos, A., & Kökönyei, G. (2021) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2021.110676 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Kirk, U., Staiano, W., Hu, E., Ngnoumen, C., Kunkle, S., Shih, E., Clausel, A., Purvis, C., & Lee, L. (2023) · JMIR mHealth and uHealth · doi:10.2196/47371 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Arch, J. J., Wilcox, R. R., Ives, L. T., Sroloff, A., & Andrews-Hanna, J. (2020) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2020.1830751 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Spangler, D. P., Williams, D. P., Speller, L. F., Brooks, J., & Thayer, J. F. (2018) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2018.01.009 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
New perspectives for the modulation of mind-wandering using transcranial electric brain stimulation
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Lab meets real life: A laboratory assessment of spontaneous thought and its ecological validity
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Autonomic complexity dynamically indexes affect regulation in everyday life.
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Modulation of autonomic activity in neurological conditions: Epilepsy and Tourette Syndrome
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Mind wandering and sleep in daily life: A combined actigraphy and experience sampling study
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Mind-wandering in daily life in depressed individuals: An experience sampling study
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The autonomic correlates of dysphoric rumination and post-rumination savoring
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Chaieb, L., Krakau, S., Reber, T. P., & Fell, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.815442 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Gontier, C. (2017) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2017.08.008 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The impact of mood-induction on maladaptive thinking in the vulnerability for depression
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Technology-Based Ecological Momentary Assessment in Clinical Psychology
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The Potential of Wearable Sensors for Detecting Cognitive Rumination: A Scoping Review
Arnold, V. X., & Young, S. D. (2025) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s25030654 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
When your heart isn’t in it anymore: cardiac correlates of task disengagement
Corcoran, A. W., Coz, A. L., Hohwy, J., & Andrillon, T. (2025) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-025-09026-3 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Reflecting rehabilitation nursing care: Theory of Recognition crossed by the Principle of Hope
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Dimensions of inattention: Cognitive, behavioral, and affective consequences
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Self-citationAutomated Detection of Mind Wandering: A Mobile Application
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Uncovering the embodied dimension of the wandering mind
Banellis, L., Nikolova, N. E., Brandholdt, M., Vejlø, M., Rebollo, I., Legrand, N., Fardo, F., Smallwood, J., & Allen, M. (2026) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2520822123 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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Sakuragi, M., & Umeda, S. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105931 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Ottaviani, C., Shahabi, L., Tarvainen, M., Cook, I., Abrams, M., & Shapiro, D.
- Affiliations
- Fondazione Santa Lucia (IT)
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- University of Eastern Finland (FI)
- Corresponding author
- Ottaviani, Cristina
- Venue
- Frontiers in Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2015-01-05
- Volume
- 8
- Pages
- 433-433
- ISSN
- 1662-453X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4283544
- OpenAlex
- W1993785993
- Cited by
- 140
- References
- 99
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 9.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- IRIS Research product catalog (Sapienza University of Rome) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Ministero della Salute (GR2010-2312442, GR-2010)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Heart Rate Variability and Autonomic Control
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Mind wandering and attention
- Keywords
- major depressive disorder, mind wandering, perseverative cognition, rumination, autonomic dysfunction, heart rate variability, heart rate, intrusive thoughts, cognitive effort, mood, somatic symptoms, hopelessness, sleep, chronic stress, cardiovascular risk
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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