Irrational Delay Revisited: Examining Five Procrastination Scales in a Global Sample
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Scales attempting to measure procrastination focus on different facets of the phenomenon, yet they share a common understanding of procrastination as an unnecessary, unwanted, and disadvantageous delay. The present paper examines in a global sample (N = 4,169) five different procrastination scales – Decisional Procrastination Scale (DPS), Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS), Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS), Adult Inventory of Procrastination Scale (AIP), and General Procrastination Scale (GPS), focusing on factor structures and item functioning using Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Item Response Theory. The results indicated that The Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS; 12 items selected from DPS, AIP, and GPS) measures different facets of procrastination even better than the three scales it is based on. An even shorter version of the PPS (5 items focusing on irrational delay), corresponds well to the 9-item Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS). Both scales demonstrate good psychometric properties and appear to be superior measures of core procrastination attributes than alternative procrastination scales.
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Research suggests that the implementational delay subscale is closely related to the irrational aspects of procrastination.
“research suggests that this subscale is closely related to the irrational aspects of procrastination (Svartdal & Steel, 2017)”
From Group cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing procrastination in college students: a randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Svartdal & Steel, 2017
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Guo, J. M., Cho, I., & Nifadkar, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1679477 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Chen, Z., Ti, S. U., Zhang, R., Xu, T., Zhou, F., Yang, Y., & Feng, T. (2019) · Scientia Sinica Vitae · doi:10.1360/ssv-2019-0076 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Valenzuela, R., Codina, N., & Pestana, J. V. (2020) · INTED proceedings · doi:10.21125/inted.2020.1857 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Βάσιου, Α., Kaldi, S., & Ξαφάκος, Ε. (2022) · Έρευνα στην Εκπαίδευση · doi:10.12681/hjre.29128 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
From distraction to delay: Unpacking academic procrastination
Fabio, R. A., Ricciardello, M., & Picciotto, G. (2026) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.19203
“The PPS includes a combination of subscales measuring different aspects of procrastination, with the most relevant being decisional delay (Items 1–3), implemental delay (Items 4–8), and lateness/timeliness (Items 9–12) (Svartdal & Steel, 2017).”
عدم تحمل الاحباط كمنبيء بالتسويف الأكاديمي لدى عينة من طلاب كلية التربية بالإسماعيلية
حامد, ن. ل. (2023) · مجلة كلية التربية جامعة بنها · doi:10.21608/jfeb.2023.240303.1767
Nofal, M. B. (2023) · Dirasat Human and Social Sciences · doi:10.35516/hum.v50i5.1488
Wang, C., You, Y., Ahemaitijiang, N., & Han, Z. R. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1440424 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
郁, 雷. (2024) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2024.1411844
Shan, A. N., & Selamat, M. N. (2025) · International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences · doi:10.6007/ijarbss/v15-i6/25599
Exploratory tendencies explain task delay in procrastination
Saling, L. L., Weatherhead, S., & Cohen, D. B. (2025) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2025.101190
Chahine, A., Yakın, E., Malaeb, D. N., Hallit, R. R., Obeïd, S., Hallit, S. R., & Fekih‐Romdhane, F. (2025) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s539413
Yupanqui-Lorenzo, D. E., Arroyo-Pizarro, P., Arauco-Lozada, T., Martinez-Arevalo, A. R., & Becerra-Herrera, W. A. (2025) · Actualidades en Psicología · doi:10.15517/ap.v39i139.62430
Dąbrowa, N. (2025) · Acta Humanitatis. · doi:10.5709/ah-03.03.2025-03 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Asikainen, H., Lampinen, V. S., & Katajavuori, N. (2026) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/84729
Procrastination as a Transdiagnostic Construct: A Psychopathological and Conceptual Scoping Review
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- Authors
- Svartdal, F., & Steel, P.
- Affiliations
- UiT The Arctic University of Norway (NO)
- University of Calgary (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Svartdal, Frode
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2017-11-03
- Volume
- 8
- Pages
- 1927-1927
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5676095
- OpenAlex
- W2765546397
- Cited by
- 107
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 6
- FWCI
- 9.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Universitetet i Tromsø
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- procrastination, procrastination scale, Pure Procrastination Scale, General Procrastination Scale, factor structure, scale validation, psychometric properties, short-form scale
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